List of Figures. IX

Acknowledgment IV

Dedication. V

Abstract 1

Chapter One: Introduction

1-1 Over view.. 3

1-2 Introduction. 3

1-3 Statement of problem.. 7

1-4 Research questions. 7

1-5 Research hypotheses. 7

1-6 Significance of the study. 8

1-7 Definitions of technical terms. 8

Chapter Two: Literature Review

2-1 Overview.. 11

2-2 Iranian Studies. 11

2-3 Foreign Studies. 13

2-4 Theoretical base of the study. 18

2-5Categories of Suffixes. 20

2-5-1 Non-neutral (Strong) suffixes. 21

2-5-2 Neutral suffixes. 22

2-6 Derivation in lexical morphology. 23

Chapter Three: Methodology

3-1 overview.. 29

3-2 Research questions. 29

3-3 Research design. 29

3-4 Participants. 30

3-5 Instruments. 31

3-5-1 Questionnaire. 32

List of Figures. IX

Acknowledgment IV

Dedication. V

Abstract 1

Chapter One: Introduction

1-1 Over view.. 3

1-2 Introduction. 3

1-3 Statement of problem.. 7

1-4 Research questions. 7

1-5 Research hypotheses. 7

1-6 Significance of the study. 8

1-7 Definitions of technical terms. 8

Chapter Two: Literature Review

2-1 Overview.. 11

2-2 Iranian Studies. 11

2-3 Foreign Studies. 13

2-4 Theoretical base of the study. 18

2-5Categories of Suffixes. 20

2-5-1 Non-neutral (Strong) suffixes. 21

2-5-2 Neutral suffixes. 22

2-6 Derivation in lexical morphology. 23

Chapter Three: Methodology

3-1 overview.. 29

3-2 Research questions. 29

3-3 Research design. 29

3-4 Participants. 30

3-5 Instruments. 31

3-5-1 Questionnaire. 32

3-5-2 Reliability and Validity. 32

3-6 Data collection procedures. 32

3-7 Data analysis. 33

 

Chapter Four: Results and Discussion

4-1 overview.. 35

4-2 Demographic information. 35

4-3 Descriptive statistics. 36

4-3-1 The frequency of the answers to the pronunciation questions. 37

4-3-2 The frequency of the answers to the pronunciation questions based on gender 38

4-3-3 The frequency of the answers to the pronunciation questions based on academic degree. 40

4-3-4 The frequency of the answers to the pronunciation questions based on the place of teaching English. 42

4-3-5 The frequency of the answers to the pronunciation questions based on teaching experience. 44

4-4 Investigating research hypotheses by using inferential statistics. 46

4-4-1 First Hypothesis: 47

4-4-2 Second Hypothesis: 47

4-4-3 Third Hypothesis: 48

4-4-4 Fourth Hypothesis: 49

4-5 Discussion. 50

Chapter Five: Summary and Conclusion

5-1 overview.. 52

5-2 Summary. 53

5-3 conclusion. 54

5-4 Implications. 55

5-5 limitations of the study. 55

5-6 Suggestions for further studies. 56

Appendix. 57

Reference. 68

List of Tables

Table 3-1 Background information about participants of the study. 30

Table 4-1 Background information about participants of the study. 36

Table 4-2 The frequency of the answers to the pronunciation questions. 37

Table 4-3 The frequency of the answers to the pronunciation questions based on gender 39

Table 4-4 The frequency of the answers to the pronunciation questions based on academic degree. 41

Table 4-5 The frequency of the answers to the pronunciation questions based on the place of teaching English. 43

Table 4-6 The frequency of the answers to the pronunciation questions based on teaching experience. 45

Table 4-7 The results obtained by applying Man-whitney U Test 47

Table 4-8 The results obtained by applying Man-whitney U Test 48

Table 4-9 The results obtained by applying Man-whitney U Test 48

Table 4-10 The results obtained by applying Kruskal–Wallis Test 49

List of Figures

Figure 3-1 Background information about participants of the study. 31

Figure 4-1 The frequency of the answers to the pronunciation questions. 38

Figure 4-2 The frequency of the answers to the pronunciation questions based on gender 40

Figure 4-3 The frequency of the answers to the pronunciation questions based on academic degree. 42

Figure 4-4 The frequency of the answers to the pronunciation questions based on the place of teaching English. 44

Figure 4-5 The frequency of the answers to the pronunciation questions based on teaching experience. 46

Abstract

Mastering pronunciation in EFL context, where direct access to native speaker is scarce, is a highly challenging objective for many language students in Iran. Derivative words more specifically, pose their own problems. There are different types of suffixes, two of which are neutral and non-neutral. This study examines the effects of the gender, experience, academic degree and the teaching place of English teachers on the pronunciation of the neutral and non-neutral suffixes. The sample included 40 Ilamian EFL teachers teaching English at different high schools and institutes. None of teachers studied in English speaking countries. They were classified into two groups male and female with B.A. and M.A. degree who taught at different schools and institutes.  To analyze data two kinds of test employed: The Man-Whitney U Test for gender, academic degree and place of teaching, and The Kruskal–Wallis for teaching experience.  There is no treatment in this study. According to these two tests and the analyses of dependant and independent variables, it can be concluded that there is no meaningful differences between female and male answers in the pronunciation of neutral and non-neutral suffixes. Also the difference between teachers having M.A and B.A degree with the pronunciation of neutral and non-neutral suffixes is not meaningful. But there is a meaningful difference between teaching place and the pronunciation of the neutral and non-neutral suffixes. Furthermore, conserning the last element, it can be said that there is no meaningful difference between three existed ranges of experience with the pronunciation of neutral and non-neutral suffixes.

Key words: pronunciation, derivative words, neutral suffixes, non-neutral suffixes

 

Chapter One

Introduction

1-1 Over view

The first chapter of this study addresses the introduction. It is organized in six major sections: a) introduction, b) statement of problem, c) research questions, e) research hypotheses, f) significance of the study and g) definition of the technical terms.

1-2 Introduction

When we think of English skills, the ‘four skills’ of listening, speaking, reading, and writing readily come to mind. Of course other skills such as pronunciation, grammar, vocabulary, and spelling all play a role in effective English communication (Bauer, Laurie, 1988).

Listening skills are vital for learners. Of the ‘four skills,’ listening is by far the most frequently used. Listening and speaking are often taught together, but beginners, especially non-literate ones, should be given more listening than speaking practice. It’s important to speak as close to natural speed as possible, although with beginners some slowing is usually necessary. Without reducing your speaking speed, you can make your language easier to comprehend by simplifying your vocabulary, using shorter sentences, and increasing the number and length of pauses in your speech (Teschner & Whitley, 2004; Fudge, 1984).

Speaking English is the main goal of many adult learners. Their personalities play a large role in determining how quickly and how correctly they will accomplish this goal. Those who are risk-takers unafraid of making mistakes will generally be more talkative, but with many errors that could become hard-to-break habits. Conservative, shy students may take a long time to speak confidently, but when they do, their English often contains fewer errors and they will be proud of their English ability. It’s a matter of quantity vs. quality, and neither approach is wrong. However, if the aim of speaking is communication and that does not require perfect English, then it makes sense to encourage quantity in your classroom. Break the silence and get students communicating with whatever English they can use, correct or not and selectively address errors that block communication. Speaking lessons often tie in pronunciation and grammar which are necessary for effective oral communication (Teschner & Whitley, 2004; Fudge, 1984).

We encounter a great variety of written language day to day — articles, stories, poems, announcements, letters, labels, signs, bills, recipes, schedules, questionnaires, cartoons, the list is endless. Literate adults easily recognize the distinctions of various types of texts (Teschner & Whitley, 2004; Fudge, 1984).

Good writing conveys a meaningful message and uses English well, but the message is more important than correct presentation. If you can

 

3-5-2 Reliability and Validity. 32

3-6 Data collection procedures. 32

3-7 Data analysis. 33

 

Chapter Four: Results and Discussion

4-1 overview.. 35

4-2 Demographic information. 35

4-3 Descriptive statistics. 36

4-3-1 The frequency of the answers to the pronunciation questions. 37

4-3-2 The frequency of the answers to the pronunciation questions based on gender 38

4-3-3 The frequency of the answers to the pronunciation questions based on academic degree. 40

4-3-4 The frequency of the answers to the pronunciation questions based on the place of teaching English. 42

4-3-5 The frequency of the answers to the pronunciation questions based on teaching experience. 44

4-4 Investigating research hypotheses by using inferential statistics. 46

4-4-1 First Hypothesis: 47

4-4-2 Second Hypothesis: 47

4-4-3 Third Hypothesis: 48

4-4-4 Fourth Hypothesis: 49

4-5 Discussion. 50

Chapter Five: Summary and Conclusion

5-1 overview.. 52

5-2 Summary. 53

5-3 conclusion. 54

5-4 Implications. 55

5-5 limitations of the study. 55

5-6 Suggestions for further studies. 56

Appendix. 57

Reference. 68

این مطلب را هم بخوانید :

List of Tables

Table 3-1 Background information about participants of the study. 30

Table 4-1 Background information about participants of the study. 36

Table 4-2 The frequency of the answers to the pronunciation questions. 37

Table 4-3 The frequency of the answers to the pronunciation questions based on gender 39

Table 4-4 The frequency of the answers to the pronunciation questions based on academic degree. 41

Table 4-5 The frequency of the answers to the pronunciation questions based on the place of teaching English. 43

Table 4-6 The frequency of the answers to the pronunciation questions based on teaching experience. 45

Table 4-7 The results obtained by applying Man-whitney U Test 47

Table 4-8 The results obtained by applying Man-whitney U Test 48

Table 4-9 The results obtained by applying Man-whitney U Test 48

Table 4-10 The results obtained by applying Kruskal–Wallis Test 49

List of Figures

Figure 3-1 Background information about participants of the study. 31

Figure 4-1 The frequency of the answers to the pronunciation questions. 38

Figure 4-2 The frequency of the answers to the pronunciation questions based on gender 40

Figure 4-3 The frequency of the answers to the pronunciation questions based on academic degree. 42

Figure 4-4 The frequency of the answers to the pronunciation questions based on the place of teaching English. 44

Figure 4-5 The frequency of the answers to the pronunciation questions based on teaching experience. 46

Abstract

Mastering pronunciation in EFL context, where direct access to native speaker is scarce, is a highly challenging objective for many language students in Iran. Derivative words more specifically, pose their own problems. There are different types of suffixes, two of which are neutral and non-neutral. This study examines the effects of the gender, experience, academic degree and the teaching place of English teachers on the pronunciation of the neutral and non-neutral suffixes. The sample included 40 Ilamian EFL teachers teaching English at different high schools and institutes. None of teachers studied in English speaking countries. They were classified into two groups male and female with B.A. and M.A. degree who taught at different schools and institutes.  To analyze data two kinds of test employed: The Man-Whitney U Test for gender, academic degree and place of teaching, and The Kruskal–Wallis for teaching experience.  There is no treatment in this study. According to these two tests and the analyses of dependant and independent variables, it can be concluded that there is no meaningful differences between female and male answers in the pronunciation of neutral and non-neutral suffixes. Also the difference between teachers having M.A and B.A degree with the pronunciation of neutral and non-neutral suffixes is not meaningful. But there is a meaningful difference between teaching place and the pronunciation of the neutral and non-neutral suffixes. Furthermore, conserning the last element, it can be said that there is no meaningful difference between three existed ranges of experience with the pronunciation of neutral and non-neutral suffixes.

Key words: pronunciation, derivative words, neutral suffixes, non-neutral suffixes

 

Chapter One

Introduction

1-1 Over view

The first chapter of this study addresses the introduction. It is organized in six major sections: a) introduction, b) statement of problem, c) research questions, e) research hypotheses, f) significance of the study and g) definition of the technical terms.

1-2 Introduction

When we think of English skills, the ‘four skills’ of listening, speaking, reading, and writing readily come to mind. Of course other skills such as pronunciation, grammar, vocabulary, and spelling all play a role in effective English communication (Bauer, Laurie, 1988).

Listening skills are vital for learners. Of the ‘four skills,’ listening is by far the most frequently used. Listening and speaking are often taught together, but beginners, especially non-literate ones, should be given more listening than speaking practice. It’s important to speak as close to natural speed as possible, although with beginners some slowing is usually necessary. Without reducing your speaking speed, you can make your language easier to comprehend by simplifying your vocabulary, using shorter sentences, and increasing the number and length of pauses in your speech (Teschner & Whitley, 2004; Fudge, 1984).

Speaking English is the main goal of many adult learners. Their personalities play a large role in determining how quickly and how correctly they will accomplish this goal. Those who are risk-takers unafraid of making mistakes will generally be more talkative, but with many errors that could become hard-to-break habits. Conservative, shy students may take a long time to speak confidently, but when they do, their English often contains fewer errors and they will be proud of their English ability. It’s a matter of quantity vs. quality, and neither approach is wrong. However, if the aim of speaking is communication and that does not require perfect English, then it makes sense to encourage quantity in your classroom. Break the silence and get students communicating with whatever English they can use, correct or not and selectively address errors that block communication. Speaking lessons often tie in pronunciation and grammar which are necessary for effective oral communication (Teschner & Whitley, 2004; Fudge, 1984).

We encounter a great variety of written language day to day — articles, stories, poems, announcements, letters, labels, signs, bills, recipes, schedules, questionnaires, cartoons, the list is endless. Literate adults easily recognize the distinctions of various types of texts (Teschner & Whitley, 2004; Fudge, 1984).

Good writing conveys a meaningful message and uses English well, but the message is more important than correct presentation. If you can

Abstract 1

Chapter 1: Introduction

1.1 Introduction. 3

1.2. Statement of the Problem.. 5

1.3. Research Questions. 6

1.4. Objectives and Significance of the Study. 7

1.5. Definition of the Key Words. 8

1.6. Outline of the Study. 9

Chapter 2: Review of Related Literature

2.1. Review of the Related Literature. 13

2.1.1. The Conceptual Framework of Metaphor 14

2.1.2. Studies on Learners’ Beliefs about Language Learning and Teaching. 15

2.2. Teachers’ and Learners’ Roles in the Design of Dominant Language Learning and Teaching Methods. 29

Chapter 3: Methodology

3.1. Methodology. 34

3.1.1. Participants. 34

3.1.2. Instruments. 35

3.1.3. Design of the Study. 36

3.1.4. Procedure of Data Collection and Analysis. 36

Chapter 4: Results and Discussion

4.1. Results. 39

4.1.1. Metaphors about EFL Teachers’ Roles. 40

4.1.2. Metaphors about EFL Learners’ Roles. 49

4.1.3. Results as a whole. 57

4.2. Discussion of the Results. 58

4.2.1. Discussion of Metaphors about Language Teacher’s Roles. 59

4.2.2. Metaphors about Language Learner’s Roles. 61

4.3. Relationship between Metaphors and the Roles Proposed in the Design of Language Learning and Teaching Methods. 63

Abstract 1

Chapter 1: Introduction

1.1 Introduction. 3

1.2. Statement of the Problem.. 5

1.3. Research Questions. 6

1.4. Objectives and Significance of the Study. 7

1.5. Definition of the Key Words. 8

1.6. Outline of the Study. 9

Chapter 2: Review of Related Literature

2.1. Review of the Related Literature. 13

2.1.1. The Conceptual Framework of Metaphor 14

2.1.2. Studies on Learners’ Beliefs about Language Learning and Teaching. 15

2.2. Teachers’ and Learners’ Roles in the Design of Dominant Language Learning and Teaching Methods. 29

Chapter 3: Methodology

3.1. Methodology. 34

3.1.1. Participants. 34

3.1.2. Instruments. 35

3.1.3. Design of the Study. 36

3.1.4. Procedure of Data Collection and Analysis. 36

Chapter 4: Results and Discussion

4.1. Results. 39

4.1.1. Metaphors about EFL Teachers’ Roles. 40

4.1.2. Metaphors about EFL Learners’ Roles. 49

4.1.3. Results as a whole. 57

4.2. Discussion of the Results. 58

4.2.1. Discussion of Metaphors about Language Teacher’s Roles. 59

4.2.2. Metaphors about Language Learner’s Roles. 61

4.3. Relationship between Metaphors and the Roles Proposed in the Design of Language Learning and Teaching Methods. 63

Chapter 5: Summary & Conclusions

5.1. Summary. 69

5.2. Conclusion. 70

5.3. Implications. 71

5.4. Limitations of the Study. 72

5.5. Suggestions for Further Research. 73

References. 75

Appendices. 79

List of Table

Table 4.1.  Metaphors developed by Iranian Kurdish-speaking EFL learners for the concept of an English language teacher 40

Table 4.2.  Metaphors developed by Iranian Kurdish-speaking EFL learners for the concept of an English language learner 49

List of Figure

Figure 4.1. An illustration of metaphorical themes about EFL teachers’ roles generated by Iranian Kurdish-speaking high school students. 48

Figure 4.2. An illustration of metaphorical themes about EFL learners’ roles generated by Iranian Kurdish-speaking high school students. 57

Abstract

Language learners come to educational contexts with preconceived beliefs about different aspects of language teaching and learning. These perceptions are not clear and concrete enough to language teachers and even the language learners themselves. In line with the change and increase in the direction of the qualitative studies conducted on beliefs elicited by use of metaphors all around the world, the present study aims at investigating the metaphorical reflections about language teachers’ and language learners’ roles by a group of Iranian Kurdish-Speaking high school students learning English-as-a-Foreign-Language (EFL) as their third language in a local context in Ilam, in western Iran. To this end, modified metaphor elicitation questionnaires as well as complementary short interviews were administered to a convenient sample of 86 participants. Using content analysis, the metaphorical expressions collected via completion of the metaphor prompts were structured into dominant thematic categories in terms of language teachers’ roles and language learners’ roles for further analysis. The metaphors were also examined to determine whether they fit into the roles assigned to language teachers and learners in the design of current language teaching and learning methods. Generally, the results revealed that the metaphorical images were in the same line with other previous studies. In addition, the elicited metaphors were comparatively for and against the proposed roles for EFL teachers and learners in educational settings. There were also several pedagogical implications for language teachers and language teacher educators and language education programs as well as suggestions for further investigations.

Keywords: Metaphor, EFL, Teacher’s Role, Learner’s Role, Method of Language Learning and Teaching, High School Student, Iran

Chapter 1:

Introduction

 

Chapter 5: Summary & Conclusions

5.1. Summary. 69

5.2. Conclusion. 70

5.3. Implications. 71

5.4. Limitations of the Study. 72

5.5. Suggestions for Further Research. 73

References. 75

Appendices. 79

List of Table

 

این مطلب را هم بخوانید :

Table 4.1.  Metaphors developed by Iranian Kurdish-speaking EFL learners for the concept of an English language teacher 40

Table 4.2.  Metaphors developed by Iranian Kurdish-speaking EFL learners for the concept of an English language learner 49

List of Figure

Figure 4.1. An illustration of metaphorical themes about EFL teachers’ roles generated by Iranian Kurdish-speaking high school students. 48

Figure 4.2. An illustration of metaphorical themes about EFL learners’ roles generated by Iranian Kurdish-speaking high school students. 57

Abstract

Language learners come to educational contexts with preconceived beliefs about different aspects of language teaching and learning. These perceptions are not clear and concrete enough to language teachers and even the language learners themselves. In line with the change and increase in the direction of the qualitative studies conducted on beliefs elicited by use of metaphors all around the world, the present study aims at investigating the metaphorical reflections about language teachers’ and language learners’ roles by a group of Iranian Kurdish-Speaking high school students learning English-as-a-Foreign-Language (EFL) as their third language in a local context in Ilam, in western Iran. To this end, modified metaphor elicitation questionnaires as well as complementary short interviews were administered to a convenient sample of 86 participants. Using content analysis, the metaphorical expressions collected via completion of the metaphor prompts were structured into dominant thematic categories in terms of language teachers’ roles and language learners’ roles for further analysis. The metaphors were also examined to determine whether they fit into the roles assigned to language teachers and learners in the design of current language teaching and learning methods. Generally, the results revealed that the metaphorical images were in the same line with other previous studies. In addition, the elicited metaphors were comparatively for and against the proposed roles for EFL teachers and learners in educational settings. There were also several pedagogical implications for language teachers and language teacher educators and language education programs as well as suggestions for further investigations.

Keywords: Metaphor, EFL, Teacher’s Role, Learner’s Role, Method of Language Learning and Teaching, High School Student, Iran

Chapter 1:

Introduction

Comprehension ability. For this purpose, 115 male and female university students majoring in English Translation participated in this study. Having being homogenized by an MELAB test, 60 learners were selected and they were randomly assigned into two groups, control and experimental. Then both groups sat for a pre-test, which was a reading comprehension test. The purpose of this test was to measure the learners’ initial subject knowledge of reading comprehension ability. Afterwards, the experimental group received treatment based on textual Modification strategy. However, the control group received no treatment. The treatment procedure took 10 sessions. Finally at the end of the course both groups sat for the post test of reading comprehension. Then the statistical analysis was run through ANCOVA. It was explored from the study that learners’ reading ability improves more when they are provided with textual Modification strategy. Key words: textual Modification, Reading comprehension Table of Contents Title Page Chapter 1: Introduction 1.0) Introduction…………………………………………………………………………………1 1.1) Theoretical framework …………………………………………..……….……….1 1.2) Statement of the Problem…………………………………………………….…….5 1.3) Purpose of the Study………………………………………….………………..…..7 1.4) Research Question…………………………………….…………….………………7 1.5) Research Hypothesis……….……………………………………………………..7 1.6) Significance of the Study……………………………………………………………7 1.7) Definitions of Key Terms ………………………………………….……………..9 1.7.1) Textual modification……………………..……………………….……………..9 1.7.2) Reading comprehension………………………………………….……………..9 1.8) Summary ………………………………………………..………………………..10 Chapter 2: Review of the Related Literature 2.0) Introduction …………………………………………………………………………………11 2.1) Theoretical framework…………………………………………………………….11 2.2) Reading Comprehension, Past and Present ………………………………..…..…15 2.2.1) The Top down (Concept-Driven) Approach ………………………..…………18 2.2.2) The Bottom up (Serial) Approach (Text-based)…………………..…..…..……19 2.2.3) The Interactive Approach ……………………………………………………….20 2.3) Schema theory ……………………………………….……………….……..…. 22 2.4) Parsing ……………………………………………….………………..…….……23 2.5) Reading materials …………………………………….……………….…….…. 24 2.5.1) Interest……………………………………………………….…………..………25 2.5.2) Objectives…………………………………………………………..……………25 2.5.3) Readability………………………………………………………..…..………..26 2.5.4) Authenticity ………………………………………………….……………..….26 2.6) Some Sources of Syntactic Complexity………………………..……………………..27 2.6.1) Surface complexity …………………………………………………………………..28 2.6.1.1) Amount ………………………………………………..……..………………..28 2.6.1.2) Density ………………………………………………….………..……..…….29 2.6.1.3) Ambiguity ……………………………………………….……………..……..29 2.6.2) Interpretive Complexity…………………………………………………………………………..29 2.6.3) Systematic Complexity …………………………………..………………………….29 2.6.3.1) Sentence Length ………………………………….……………………..……31 2.6.3.2) Preposed Clause……………………………………………………………………….31 2.6.3.3) Passive Sentences ……………………………………………………….…….32 2.6.3.4) Relative clause and Embedding ………………………………………………….…33 2.6.3.5) A Proposition-based Measure of Comprehensibility.………………………..34 2.7) Syntactic Complexity and Reading…………………………………..……..…….35 2.8) Simplification of Reading Materials ……………………………………..….…..38 2.8.1) Splitting the sentence………………………………………..…………………40 2.8.2) Changing discourse marker………………………………….………..…………41 2.8.3) Transformation to active voice …………………………….……..………….…41 2.8.4) Inversion of clause ordering ………………………………………..…………..42 2.8.5) Subject-Verb-Object ordering ………………………………..…………….….42 2.8.6) Topicalization and Detopicalization……………………….……………………42 2.9) Simplification and Authenticity…………………………………..…..………….45 2.10) Summary ………………………………………………………..………………47 Chapter 3: Methodology 3.0)Introduction……………………………………………………………………..…48 3.1) Design of the study ………………………………………………..…………..…48 3.2) Participants of the Study……………………………………..…….……………..49 3.3) Materials of the Study …………………………………………………………..……..49 3.4) Procedures of the Study………………………………………………………………..49 3.5) Statistical Collection………………………………………..………….………….50 3.7) Summary……………………………………….…………………..….…………50 Chapter 4: Results 4.0) Data Analysis and Findings …………………….……………………..…………51 4.1) Results of Hypothesis Testing ……………………………………………..….…53 2) Summary …………………………………………………………………………54 Chapter 5: Discussion and Implication 5.0) Discussion ……………………………………………………………….……….55 5.1) Pedagogical Implication ……………………………………………………..…..56 5.3) Implication for teaching …………………………………………..……………..57 5.4) limitations of The Study ……………………………………….……………..…..57 5.5) Suggestions for Further Research …………………………………………………57 References ………………………..……………………………………..…..……..……..59 Appendices Appendix A: MELAB Test ………………………………………………….………..…..66 Appendix B: Pre-test (A test from Nelson-Denny Reading Comprehension Tests)…………82 Appendix C: Treatment procedure for experimental group (syntactically simplified text) …84 Appendix D: Post-test ……………………………………………………………..….87 List of Tables Title Page Table 2.1 Survey of Simplification Studies and Results……………………….……….14 Table 4.1.Group Statistics……………………………………………………………………51 Table 4.2. Independent Samples Test…………………………………………………………51 Table 4.3. Descriptive statistics and independent t-test for the comparison of pre-test results………52 Table 4.4. Independent Samples Test……………………………………………….………..53 Table 4.5. Paired Samples Test……………………………………………………….………53 Chapter One Introduction Introduction Textual modification can be defined as any process that reduces the syntactic or lexical complexity of a text while attempting to preserve its meaning and information content. The aim of Textual modification is to make text easier to comprehend for a human user or process by a program. A common method for assessing whether a text is suitable for a particular reading age is by means of using readability metric, such as the Flesch readability score, proposed in 1943 and more recently popularized by Microsoft Word. These metrics are based solely on surface attributes of a text, such as average sentence and word lengths. The term readability is therefore a misnomer; these metrics do not attempt to judge how readable, well written or cohesive a text is, or even whether it is grammatical. Rather, they suggest what reading age a text (that is assumed to be well written, cohesive and relevant in content) is suitable for, by means of a calibration with school reading grades. Theoretical Framework Compared to controlled generation and text summarization, there has been significantly less work done on the automatic textual modification of existing text. Interestingly, the two main groups involved with textual Modification have had very different motivations. The group at UPenn (Chandrasekar et al., 1996; Chandrasekar and Srinivas, 1997) viewed text simplification as a preprocessing tool to improve the performance of their parser. The PSET project on the other hand focused its research on simplifying newspaper text for aphasics (Carroll et al., 1998; Carroll et al., 1999b). Chandrasekar et al.’s motivation for textual modification was largely to reduce sentence length as a preprocessing step for a parser. They treated textual modification as a two-stage process— analysis followed by transformation. Their research focused on dis-embedding relative clauses and appositives and separating out coordinated clauses. Their first approach (Chandrasekar et al., 1996) was to hand-craft simplification rules, the example from their paper being: V W:NP, X:REL PRON Y, Z. −→ V W Z. W Y. which can be read as “if a sentence consists of any text V followed by a noun phrase W, a relative pronoun X and a sequence of words Y enclosed in commas and a sequence of words Z, then the embedded clause can be made into a new sentence with W as the subject noun phrase”. This rule can, for example, be used to perform the following modification: John, who was the CEO of a company, played golf. John played golf. John was the CEO of a company. In practice, linear pattern-matching rules like the handcrafted one above do not work very well. For example, to simplify: A friend from London, who was the CEO of a company, played golf, usually on Sundays. it is necessary to decide whether the relative clause attaches to friend or London and whether the clause ends at company or golf. And if a parser is used to resolve these ambiguities (as in their second approach summarized below), the intended use of text simplification as a preprocessor to a parser is harder to justify. Their second approach (Chandrasekar and Srinivas, 1997) was to have the program learn simplification rules from an aligned corpus of sentences and their hand-simplified forms. The original and simplified sentences were parsed using a Lightweight Dependency Analyser (LDA) (Srinivas, 1997) that acted on the output of a super tagger (Joshi and Srinivas, 1994). These parses were chunked into phrases. Simplification rules were induced from a comparison of the structures of the chunked parses of the original and hand simplified text. The learning algorithm worked by flattening sub trees that were the same on both sides of the rule, replacing identical strings of words with variables and then computing tree→trees transformations to obtain rules in terms of these variables. This approach involved the manual simplification of a reasonable quantity of text. The authors justified this approach on the basis that handcrafting rules is time consuming. However, it is likely that the intuitions used to manually simplify sentences can be encodable in rules without too much time overhead. In addition, while this approach is interesting from the machine-learning point of view, it seems unlikely that a system that learns from a corpus that has been simplified by hand will outperform a system in which the rules themselves have been hand-crafted. Textual modification can increase the throughput of a parser only if it reduces the syntactic ambiguity in the text. Hence, a Textual modification system has to be able to make disambiguation decisions without a parser in order to be of use to parsing. This early work on Textual modification therefore raised more issues than it addressed. Moreover, since the authors did not provide any evaluations, it is difficult to assess how well their approaches to text simplification worked. The PSET project (Devlin and Tait, 1998; Carroll et al., 1998), in contrast, was aimed at people with aphasia rather than at parsers and was more justified in making use of a parser for the analysis stage. For syntactic simplification, the PSET project roughly followed the approach of Chandrasekar et al. PSET used a probabilistic LR parser (Briscoe and Carroll, 1995) for the analysis stage and unification-based pattern matching of handcrafted rules over phrase-marker trees for the transformation Comprehension ability. For this purpose, 115 male and female university students majoring in English Translation participated in this study. Having being homogenized by an MELAB test, 60 learners were selected and they were randomly assigned into two groups, control and experimental. Then both groups sat for a pre-test, which was a reading comprehension test. The purpose of this test was to measure the learners’ initial subject knowledge of reading comprehension ability. Afterwards, the experimental group received treatment based on textual Modification strategy. However, the control group received no treatment. The treatment procedure took 10 sessions. Finally at the end of the course both groups sat for the post test of reading comprehension. Then the statistical analysis was run through ANCOVA. It was explored from the study that learners’ reading ability improves more when they are provided with textual Modification strategy. Key words: textual Modification, Reading comprehension Table of Contents Title Page Chapter 1: Introduction 1.0) Introduction…………………………………………………………………………………1 1.1) Theoretical framework …………………………………………..……….……….1 1.2) Statement of the Problem…………………………………………………….…….5 1.3) Purpose of the Study………………………………………….………………..…..7 1.4) Research Question…………………………………….…………….………………7 1.5) Research Hypothesis……….……………………………………………………..7 1.6) Significance of the Study……………………………………………………………7 1.7) Definitions of Key Terms ………………………………………….……………..9 1.7.1) Textual modification……………………..……………………….……………..9 1.7.2) Reading comprehension………………………………………….……………..9 1.8) Summary ………………………………………………..………………………..10 Chapter 2: Review of the Related Literature 2.0) Introduction …………………………………………………………………………………11 2.1) Theoretical framework…………………………………………………………….11 2.2) Reading Comprehension, Past and Present ………………………………..…..…15 2.2.1) The Top down (Concept-Driven) Approach ………………………..…………18 2.2.2) The Bottom up (Serial) Approach (Text-based)…………………..…..…..……19 2.2.3) The Interactive Approach ……………………………………………………….20 2.3) Schema theory ……………………………………….……………….……..…. 22 2.4) Parsing ……………………………………………….………………..…….……23 2.5) Reading materials …………………………………….……………….…….…. 24 2.5.1) Interest……………………………………………………….…………..………25 2.5.2) Objectives…………………………………………………………..……………25 2.5.3) Readability………………………………………………………..…..………..26 2.5.4) Authenticity ………………………………………………….……………..….26 2.6) Some Sources of Syntactic Complexity………………………..……………………..27 2.6.1) Surface complexity …………………………………………………………………..28 2.6.1.1) Amount ………………………………………………..……..………………..28 2.6.1.2) Density ………………………………………………….………..……..…….29 2.6.1.3) Ambiguity ……………………………………………….……………..……..29 2.6.2) Interpretive Complexity…………………………………………………………………………..29 2.6.3) Systematic Complexity …………………………………..………………………….29 2.6.3.1) Sentence Length ………………………………….……………………..……31 2.6.3.2) Preposed Clause……………………………………………………………………….31 2.6.3.3) Passive Sentences ……………………………………………………….…….32 2.6.3.4) Relative clause and Embedding ………………………………………………….…33 2.6.3.5) A Proposition-based Measure of Comprehensibility.………………………..34 2.7) Syntactic Complexity and Reading…………………………………..……..…….35 2.8) Simplification of Reading Materials ……………………………………..….…..38 2.8.1) Splitting the sentence………………………………………..…………………40 2.8.2) Changing discourse marker………………………………….………..…………41 2.8.3) Transformation to active voice …………………………….……..………….…41 2.8.4) Inversion of clause ordering ………………………………………..…………..42 2.8.5) Subject-Verb-Object ordering ………………………………..…………….….42 2.8.6) Topicalization and Detopicalization……………………….……………………42 2.9) Simplification and Authenticity…………………………………..…..………….45 2.10) Summary ………………………………………………………..………………47 Chapter 3: Methodology 3.0)Introduction……………………………………………………………………..…48 3.1) Design of the study ………………………………………………..…………..…48 3.2) Participants of the Study……………………………………..…….……………..49 3.3) Materials of the Study …………………………………………………………..……..49 3.4) Procedures of the Study………………………………………………………………..49 3.5) Statistical Collection………………………………………..………….………….50 3.7) Summary……………………………………….…………………..….…………50 Chapter 4: Results 4.0) Data Analysis and Findings …………………….……………………..…………51 4.1) Results of Hypothesis Testing ……………………………………………..….…53 2) Summary …………………………………………………………………………54 Chapter 5: Discussion and Implication 5.0) Discussion ……………………………………………………………….……….55 5.1) Pedagogical Implication ……………………………………………………..…..56 5.3) Implication for teaching …………………………………………..……………..57 5.4) limitations of The Study ……………………………………….……………..…..57 5.5) Suggestions for Further Research …………………………………………………57 References ………………………..……………………………………..…..……..……..59 Appendices Appendix A: MELAB Test ………………………………………………….………..…..66 Appendix B: Pre-test (A test from Nelson-Denny Reading Comprehension Tests)…………82 Appendix C: Treatment procedure for experimental group (syntactically simplified text) …84 Appendix D: Post-test ……………………………………………………………..….87 List of Tables Title Page Table 2.1 Survey of Simplification Studies and Results……………………….……….14 Table 4.1.Group Statistics……………………………………………………………………51 Table 4.2. Independent Samples Test…………………………………………………………51 Table 4.3. Descriptive statistics and independent t-test for the comparison of pre-test results………52 Table 4.4. Independent Samples Test……………………………………………….………..53 Table 4.5. Paired Samples Test……………………………………………………….………53 Chapter One Introduction Introduction Textual modification can be defined as any process that reduces the syntactic or lexical complexity of a text while attempting to preserve its meaning and information content. The aim of Textual modification is to make text easier to comprehend for a human user or process by a program. A common method for assessing whether a text is suitable for a particular reading age is by means of using readability metric, such as the Flesch readability score, proposed in 1943 and more recently popularized by Microsoft Word. These metrics are based solely on surface attributes of a text, such as average sentence and word lengths. The term readability is therefore a misnomer; these metrics do not attempt to judge how readable, well written or cohesive a text is, or even whether it is grammatical. Rather, they suggest what reading age a text (that is assumed to be well written, cohesive and relevant in content) is suitable for, by means of a calibration with school reading grades. Theoretical Framework Compared to controlled generation and text summarization, there has been significantly less work done on the automatic textual modification of existing text. Interestingly, the two main groups involved with textual Modification have had very different motivations. The group at UPenn (Chandrasekar et al., 1996; Chandrasekar and Srinivas, 1997) viewed text simplification as a preprocessing tool to improve the performance of their parser. The PSET project on the other hand focused its research on simplifying newspaper text for aphasics (Carroll et al., 1998; Carroll et al., 1999b). Chandrasekar et al.’s motivation for textual modification was largely to reduce sentence length as a preprocessing step for a parser. They treated textual modification as a two-stage process— analysis followed by transformation. Their research focused on dis-embedding relative clauses and appositives and separating out coordinated clauses. Their first approach (Chandrasekar et al., 1996) was to hand-craft simplification rules, the example from their paper being: V W:NP, X:REL PRON Y, Z. −→ V W Z. W Y. which can be read as “if a sentence consists of any text V followed by a noun phrase W, a relative pronoun X and a sequence of words Y enclosed in commas and a sequence of words Z, then the embedded clause can be made into a new sentence with W as the subject noun phrase”. This rule can, for example, be used to perform the following modification: John, who was the CEO of a company, played golf. John played golf. John was the CEO of a company. In practice, linear pattern-matching rules like the handcrafted one above do not work very well. For example, to simplify: A friend from London, who was the CEO of a company, played golf, usually on Sundays. it is necessary to decide whether the relative clause attaches to friend or London and whether the clause ends at company or golf. And if a parser is used to resolve these ambiguities (as in their second approach summarized below), the intended use of text simplification as a preprocessor to a parser is harder to justify. Their second approach (Chandrasekar and Srinivas, 1997) was to have the program learn simplification rules from an aligned این مطلب را هم بخوانید : این مطلب را هم بخوانید : corpus of sentences and their hand-simplified forms. The original and simplified sentences were parsed using a Lightweight Dependency Analyser (LDA) (Srinivas, 1997) that acted on the output of a super tagger (Joshi and Srinivas, 1994). These parses were chunked into phrases. Simplification rules were induced from a comparison of the structures of the chunked parses of the original and hand simplified text. The learning algorithm worked by flattening sub trees that were the same on both sides of the rule, replacing identical strings of words with variables and then computing tree→trees transformations to obtain rules in terms of these variables. This approach involved the manual simplification of a reasonable quantity of text. The authors justified this approach on the basis that handcrafting rules is time consuming. However, it is likely that the intuitions used to manually simplify sentences can be encodable in rules without too much time overhead. In addition, while this approach is interesting from the machine-learning point of view, it seems unlikely that a system that learns from a corpus that has been simplified by hand will outperform a system in which the rules themselves have been hand-crafted. Textual modification can increase the throughput of a parser only if it reduces the syntactic ambiguity in the text. Hence, a Textual modification system has to be able to make disambiguation decisions without a parser in order to be of use to parsing. This early work on Textual modification therefore raised more issues than it addressed. Moreover, since the authors did not provide any evaluations, it is difficult to assess how well their approaches to text simplification worked. The PSET project (Devlin and Tait, 1998; Carroll et al., 1998), in contrast, was aimed at people with aphasia rather than at parsers and was more justified in making use of a parser for the analysis stage. For syntactic simplification, the PSET project roughly followed the approach of Chandrasekar et al. PSET used a probabilistic LR parser (Briscoe and Carroll, 1995) for the analysis stage and unification-based pattern matching of handcrafted rules over phrase-marker trees for the transformation stage. The project reports that on 100 news articles, the parser returned 81% full parses, 15% parse fragments and 4% parse failures. An example of the kind of simplification rule used in the textual modification component of the PSET project is: (S (?a) (S (?b) (S (?c) ) ) ) −→ (?a) (?c) stage. The project reports that on 100 news articles, the parser returned 81% full parses, 15% parse fragments and 4% parse failures. An example of the kind of simplification rule used in the textual modification component of the PSET project is: (S (?a) (S (?b) (S (?c) ) ) ) −→ (?a) (?c)

۱-۴- اقتصاد گالیم.. 8
۱-۵- روش­های تولید گالیم.. 11
۱-۵-۱- استخراج گالیم از فرایند بایر.. 11
۱-۵-۱-۱- ترسیب جزء به جزء.. 12
۱-۵-۱-۲- روش الكترولیز.. 14
۱-۵-۱-۳- فرایند سمنتاسیون.. 16
۱-۵-۱-۴- فرایندهای استخراج با حلال.. 17

فصل دوم: مبانی استخراج با حلال گالیم
۲-۱- مقدمه.. 20
۲-۲- فرآیند استخراج.. 20
۲-۳- فرآیند استریپ.. 22
۲-۴- استخراج با حلال گالیم.. 25
۲-۴-۱- سیستم هیدروکسید.. 26
۲-۴-۱-۱- مشتقات هیدروكسی كوینولین.. 26
۲-۴-۱-۱-۱-  تاثیر سطح سازها.. 30
۲-۴-۲- سیستم­های کلریدی.. 34
۲-۴-۲-۱- اترها.. 34
۲-۴-۲-۲- ترکیبات ارگانوفسفر (تری بوتیل فسفات (TBP)، تری اکتیل فسفین اکسید (TOPO)).. 35
۲-۴-۲-۳- دی دو اتیل فسفریک اسید، ۲ اتیل هگزیل، ۲ اتیل هگزیل فسفریک اسید.. 37
۲-۴-۲-۴- اکتیل فنیل اسید فسفات (OPAP).. 38
۲-۴-۲-۵- الكیل آمین­ها و نمك­های آمونیوم.. 39
۲-۴-۲-۶- اسیدهای كربوكسیلیك.. 41

فصل سوم: مبانی میکروامولسیون
۳-۱- مقدمه.. 44
۳-۲- تشکیل میکروامولسیون­ها.. 47
۳-۳- میسل و میسل معکوس.. 47
۳-۴- غلظت میسلی بحرانی.. 49
۳-۵- تقسیم بندی وینسور.. 50
۳-۶- تعادل هیدروفیلیک-لیپوفیلیک.. 53
۳-۷- دمای وارونگی فاز.. 55
۳-۸- رفتار فازی.. 56
۳-۹- سطح سازها و کمک سطح سازها.. 57
۳-۱۰- میکروامولسیون­های آب در روغن (W/O).. 58
۳-۱۱- میکروامولسیون­های روغن در آب (O/W).. 59
۳-۱۲- میکروامولسیون­های دو پیوسته.. 60
۳-۱۳- مکانیسم استخراج با میکروامولسیون­ها.. 61
۳-۱۳-۱- استخراج میکروامولسیون با واکنش شیمیایی: استخراج یون فلزی   62
۳-۱۴- سینتیک استخراج با سیستم میسلی.. 65
۳-۱۵- استفاده از میکروامولسیون­ها در بازیابی فلزات.. 66
۳-۱۵-۱- استخراج گالیم توسط میکروامولسیون.. 71

فصل چهارم: کارخانه­ی آلومینا جاجرم
۴-۱- مقدمه.. 76
۴-۲- شرح فرآیند.. 77

فصل پنجم: مواد، تجهیزات و روش­ها
۵-۱- مقدمه.. 86
۵-۲- محلول آلومینات سدیم.. 86
۵-۳- مواد شیمیایی.. 86
۵-۴- تجهیزات.. 87
۵-۵- روش انجام آزمایش­ها.. 88
۵-۵-۱- رسم دیاگرام سه فازی.. 88
۵-۵-۲- استخراج حلالی گالیم.. 89
۵-۵-۳- روش آنالیز.. 89
۵-۶- روش محاسبات.. 90

۱-۴- اقتصاد گالیم.. 8
۱-۵- روش­های تولید گالیم.. 11
۱-۵-۱- استخراج گالیم از فرایند بایر.. 11
۱-۵-۱-۱- ترسیب جزء به جزء.. 12
۱-۵-۱-۲- روش الكترولیز.. 14
۱-۵-۱-۳- فرایند سمنتاسیون.. 16
۱-۵-۱-۴- فرایندهای استخراج با حلال.. 17

فصل دوم: مبانی استخراج با حلال گالیم
۲-۱- مقدمه.. 20
۲-۲- فرآیند استخراج.. 20
۲-۳- فرآیند استریپ.. 22
۲-۴- استخراج با حلال گالیم.. 25
۲-۴-۱- سیستم هیدروکسید.. 26
۲-۴-۱-۱- مشتقات هیدروكسی كوینولین.. 26
۲-۴-۱-۱-۱-  تاثیر سطح سازها.. 30
۲-۴-۲- سیستم­های کلریدی.. 34
۲-۴-۲-۱- اترها.. 34
۲-۴-۲-۲- ترکیبات ارگانوفسفر (تری بوتیل فسفات (TBP)، تری اکتیل فسفین اکسید (TOPO)).. 35
۲-۴-۲-۳- دی دو اتیل فسفریک اسید، ۲ اتیل هگزیل، ۲ اتیل هگزیل فسفریک اسید.. 37
۲-۴-۲-۴- اکتیل فنیل اسید فسفات (OPAP).. 38
۲-۴-۲-۵- الكیل آمین­ها و نمك­های آمونیوم.. 39
۲-۴-۲-۶- اسیدهای كربوكسیلیك.. 41

فصل سوم: مبانی میکروامولسیون
۳-۱- مقدمه.. 44
۳-۲- تشکیل میکروامولسیون­ها.. 47
۳-۳- میسل و میسل معکوس.. 47
۳-۴- غلظت میسلی بحرانی.. 49
۳-۵- تقسیم بندی وینسور.. 50
۳-۶- تعادل هیدروفیلیک-لیپوفیلیک.. 53
۳-۷- دمای وارونگی فاز.. 55
۳-۸- رفتار فازی.. 56
۳-۹- سطح سازها و کمک سطح سازها.. 57
۳-۱۰- میکروامولسیون­های آب در روغن (W/O).. 58
۳-۱۱- میکروامولسیون­های روغن در آب (O/W).. 59
۳-۱۲- میکروامولسیون­های دو پیوسته.. 60
۳-۱۳- مکانیسم استخراج با میکروامولسیون­ها.. 61
۳-۱۳-۱- استخراج میکروامولسیون با واکنش شیمیایی: استخراج یون فلزی   62
۳-۱۴- سینتیک استخراج با سیستم میسلی.. 65
۳-۱۵- استفاده از میکروامولسیون­ها در بازیابی فلزات.. 66
۳-۱۵-۱- استخراج گالیم توسط میکروامولسیون.. 71

فصل چهارم: کارخانه­ی آلومینا جاجرم
۴-۱- مقدمه.. 76
۴-۲- شرح فرآیند.. 77

فصل پنجم: مواد، تجهیزات و روش­ها
۵-۱- مقدمه.. 86
۵-۲- محلول آلومینات سدیم.. 86
۵-۳- مواد شیمیایی.. 86
۵-۴- تجهیزات.. 87
۵-۵- روش انجام آزمایش­ها.. 88
۵-۵-۱- رسم دیاگرام سه فازی.. 88
۵-۵-۲- استخراج حلالی گالیم.. 89
۵-۵-۳- روش آنالیز.. 89
۵-۶- روش محاسبات.. 90

فصل ششم: نتایج و بحث
۶-۱- مشخصات محلول آلومینا.. 94
۶-۲- رسم دیاگرام سه فازی.. 94
۶-۳- آزمایش­های اولیه­ی استخراج.. 100
۶-۴- آزمایش­های استخراج با بوتانل.. 105
۶-۴-۱- بوتانول با نسبت ۲=  C/S. 105
۶-۴-۱-۱- تاثیر درصد وزنی C/S بر روی استخراج.. 107
۶-۴-۱-۲- تاثیر درصد وزنی OF بر روی استخراج.. 108
۶-۴-۱-۳- مدل سازی استخراج گالیم و آلومینیوم با کمک سطح ساز بوتانل در ۲ = C/S. 110
۶-۴-۱-۴- رسم منحنی­های هم تراز برای استخراج گالیم و آلومینیم   111
۶-۴-۱-۵- بررسی فاکتور جدایش گالیم و آلومینیوم.. 113
۶-۴-۲- بوتانول با نسبت ۴ = C/S. 115
۶-۴-۲-۱- تاثیر درصد وزنی C/S بر روی استخراج.. 117
۶-۴-۲-۲- تاثیر درصد وزنی OF بر روی استخراج.. 118
۶-۴-۲-۳- مدل سازی استخراج گالیم و آلومینیوم با کمک سطح ساز بوتانل در ۴ = C/S. 120
۶-۴-۲-۴- رسم منحنی­های هم تراز برای گالیم و آلومینیم.. 121
۶-۴-۲-۵- بررسی فاکتور جدایش گالیم و آلومینیوم.. 122
۶-۵- آزمایش­های استخراج با دکانول، نسبت ۲ = C/S. 124
۶-۵-۱- تاثیر درصد وزنی C/S بر روی استخراج.. 126
۶-۵-۲- تاثیر درصد وزنی OF بر روی استخراج.. 127
۶-۵-۳- مدل سازی استخراج گالیم و آلومینیوم با کمک سطح ساز دکانول در ۲ = C/S. 128
۶-۵-۴- رسم منحنی­های هم تراز برای گالیم و آلومینیوم.. 129
۶-۵-۵- بررسی فاکتور جدایش گالیم و آلومینیوم.. 131
۶-۶- بررسی رگرسیون و پارامترهای مرتبط.. 134
۶-۶-۱- بررسی ضرایب مدل­های بدست آمده توسط رگرسیون.. 135
۶-۷- فرایند اسکراب و استریپ.. 135
۶-۸- مقایسه­ی نتایج حاصل از سیستم میکروامولسیون با استخراج حلالی مرسوم   136
فصل هفتم: نتیجه گیری و پیشنهادات
۷-۱- نتیجه گیری.. 142
۷-۲- پیشنهادات.. 143

مراجع.. 145

 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
فهرست جدول­ها

جدول ۱-۱: كشورها و شركت­های تولید كننده­ی گالیم.. 10
جدول ۳-۱: طبقه بندی کاربرد سطح ساز توسط استفاده از عدد HLB سطح ساز   54
جدول ۳-۲: عدد HLB برای گروه­های شیمیایی مختلف.. 55
جدول ۳-۳: مطالعات انجام شده بر روی استخراج فلزات توسط سیستم میکروامولسیون   73
جدول ۵-۱: مشخصات مواد شیمیایی استفاده شده در تحقیق.. 87
جدول ۵-۲: مشخصات تجهیزات مورد استفاده در تحقیق.. 87
جدول ۶-۱: آنالیز شیمیایی محلول آلومینات سدیم جاجرم.. 94
جدول ۶-۲: مشخصات نقاط آزمایش شده برای رسم دیاگرام سه فازی با بوتانل و نسبت ۲ = C/S. 95
جدول ۶-۳: مشخصات نقاط آزمایش شده برای رسم دیاگرام سه فازی با دکانول و نسبت ۴ = C/S. 96
جدول ۶-۴: مشخصات نقاط آزمایش شده برای رسم دیاگرام سه فازی با دکانول و نسبت ۲ = C/S. 96
جدول ۶-۵: ترکیب نقاط انتخاب شده روی دیاگرام سه فازی.. 101
جدول ۶-۶: ترکیب نقاط انتخاب شده و درصد استخراج گالیم و آلومینیوم   106
جدول ۶-۷: آزمون انحراف مدل رگرسیونی برای استخراج گالیم و آلومینیوم   111
جدول ۶-۸: داده­های فاکتور جدایش برای سیستم حاوی بوتانول، با نسبت ۲ = C/S  114
جدول ۶-۹: ترکیب نقاط انتخاب شده و درصد استخراج گالیم و آلومینیوم   116
جدول ۶-۱۰: آزمون انحراف مدل رگرسیونی برای درصد استخراج گالیم و آلومینیوم   120
جدول ۶-۱۱: داده­های فاکتور جدایش برای سیستم حاوی بوتانول، با نسبت ۲ = C/S  123
جدول ۶-۱۲: ترکیب نقاط انتخاب شده و درصد استخراج گالیم و آلومینیوم   124
جدول ۶-۱۳: آزمون انحراف مدل رگرسیونی برای درصد استخراج گالیم و آلومینیوم   129
جدول ۶-۱۴: داده­های فاکتور جدایش برای سیستم حاوی دکانول، با نسبت ۲ = C/S  132
جدول ۶-۱۵: مقادیر ضریب همبستگی برای روش­های مختلف رگرسیون   135
جدول ۶-۱۶: ضرایب مدل­های بدست آمده برای گالیم.. 135
جدول ۶-۱۷: غلظت گالیم و آلومینیوم در فاز آبی و آلی قبل و بعد از استخراج   138
جدول ۶-۱۸: غلظت گالیم و آلومینیوم در فاز آبی و آلی قبل و بعد از اسکراب   138
جدول ۶-۱۹: غلظت گالیم و آلومینیوم در فاز آبی و آلی قبل و بعد از استریپ   138

 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
فهرست شکل­ها

شكل ۱-۱: فرآیند ترسیب بیجا برای بازیابی گالیم از محلول حاصل از فرآیند بایر.. 14
شكل۱-۲: فرآیند الكترولیز برای بازیابی گالیم از مایعات فرآیند بایر   16
شکل ۲-۱: طرح شماتیک از آزمایش استخراج با حلال.. 21
شکل ۲-۲: دیاگرام مک کیب – تیل.. 23
شکل ۲-۳: فرمول عمومی هیدروکسی کوینولین جانشین شده.. 26
شکل ۲-۴: ساختار اجزاء اصلی تشکیل دهنده­ی ۱۰۰ kelex .. 27
شکل ۲-۵: ساختمان مونو و دی- اکتیل فنیل فسفریک اسید.. 39
شکل ۳-۱: دیاگرام سه فازی شماتیک از سیستم میکروامولسیون روغن-آب-سطح ساز   49
شکل ۳-۲: انواع میکروامولسیون­های وینسور.. 50
شکل ۳-۳: طبقه بندی وینسور و توالی فاز میکروامولسیون­ها بر اساس دما یا درجه­ی شوری به ترتیب برای سطح سازهای غیر یونی و یونی.. 51
شکل ۳-۴: دیاگرام سه فازی انواع مختلف سیستم­های میکروامولسیون که توسط وینسور طبقه بندی شده­اند.. 52
شکل ۳-۵: دیاگرام سه فازی که ناحیه­ی میکروامولسیون روغن در آب، L1 و ناحیه­ی میکروامولسیون آب در روغن، L2 را نشان می­دهد.. 57
شکل ۳-۶: میکروامولسیون آب در روغن.. 59
شکل ۳-۷: میکروامولسیون روغن در آب.. 60
شکل ۳-۸: موقعیت­های ممکن قابلیت حل شدن در یک میسل.. 62
شکل ۳-۹: دیاگرام سه فازی استخراج تنگستن و نقاط انتخاب شده بر روی آن   67
شکل ۳-۱۰: منحنی هم تراز استخراج تنگستن.. 68
شکل ۳-۱۱: منحنی هم تراز استریپینگ تنگستن.. 68
شکل ۴-۱: نمایی از واحد دریافت و خردایش سنگ بوکسیت.. 77
شکل ۴-۲: واحد انحلال لوله­ای.. 78
شکل ۴-۳: واحد تجزیه­ی محلول و ترسیب.. 79
شکل ۴-۴: واحد تکلیس هیدرات و تولید آلومینا.. 80
شکل ۴-۵: واحد ته نشینی گل قرمز.. 81
شکل ۴-۶: واحد تبخیر و تغلیظ و بازیابی سود سوز آور.. 82
شکل ۴-۷: فرایند تولید آلومینا از بوکسیت.. 83
شکل ۵-۱: محیط نرم افزار Origin Pro 8.6. 91
شکل ۵-۲: محیط نرم افزار IBM SPSS Statistice 22. 91
شکل ۶-۱: دیاگرام سه فازی مربوط به کمک سطح سازهای بوتانل و دکانول   97
شکل ۶-۲: دیاگرام سه فازی برای سیستم شامل آب/کروزین/SCO+الکل   98
شکل ۶-۳: تاثیر نسبت C/S بر روی منطقه­ی میکروامولسیون برای سیستم شامل آب/کروزین/SCO+بوتانول.. 99
شکل ۶-۴: دیاگرام سه فازی؛ سیستم I: شامل SCO/بوتانول/کروزین/محلول بایر؛ سیستم II: شامل Kelex-100/بوتانول/کروزین/محلول بایر.. 100
شکل ۶-۵: نقاط انتخاب شده روی دیاگرام سه فازی برای آزمایش­های اولیه   102
شکل ۶-۶: تغییرات استخراج نسبت به زمان برای نقطه­ی A از شکل ۶-۵   103
شکل ۶-۷: تغییرات استخراج نسبت به زمان برای نقطه­ی F از شکل ۶-۵   103
شکل ۶-۸: تغییرات استخراج گالیم و آلومینیوم بر حسب نوع کمک سطح ساز   104
شکل ۶-۹: مولکول بوتانول.. 105
شکل ۶-۱۰: مشخصات نقاط انتخاب شده بر روی دیاگرام سه فازی بوتانول با نسبت ۲ = C/S برای استخراج گالیم.. 106
شکل ۶-۱۱: تغییرات استخراج گالیم و آلومینیوم به صورت تابعی از درصد وزنی C/S در درصد وزنی فاز آبی ثابت.. 107
شکل ۶-۱۲: تغییرات استخراج گالیم و آلومینیوم نسبت به تغییرات درصد وزنی C/S، OF = 10%.. 108
شکل ۶-۱۳: تغییرات استخراج گالیم و آلومینیوم به صورت تابعی از درصد وزنی OF، AF = 20%.. 109
شکل ۶-۱۴: تغییرات استخراج گالیم و آلومینیوم به صورت تابعی از درصد وزنی OF، C/S = 20%.. 109
شکل ۶-۱۵: منحنی هم تراز استخراج گالیم برای سیستم حاوی بوتانول با نسبت ۲ = C/S. 112

 

فصل ششم: نتایج و بحث
۶-۱- مشخصات محلول آلومینا.. 94
۶-۲- رسم دیاگرام سه فازی.. 94
۶-۳- آزمایش­های اولیه­ی استخراج.. 100
۶-۴- آزمایش­های استخراج با بوتانل.. 105
۶-۴-۱- بوتانول با نسبت ۲=  C/S. 105
۶-۴-۱-۱- تاثیر درصد وزنی C/S بر روی استخراج.. 107
۶-۴-۱-۲- تاثیر درصد وزنی OF بر روی استخراج.. 108
۶-۴-۱-۳- مدل سازی استخراج گالیم و آلومینیوم با کمک سطح ساز بوتانل در ۲ = C/S. 110
۶-۴-۱-۴- رسم منحنی­های هم تراز برای استخراج گالیم و آلومینیم   111
۶-۴-۱-۵- بررسی فاکتور جدایش گالیم و آلومینیوم.. 113
۶-۴-۲- بوتانول با نسبت ۴ = C/S. 115
۶-۴-۲-۱- تاثیر درصد وزنی C/S بر روی استخراج.. 117
۶-۴-۲-۲- تاثیر درصد وزنی OF بر روی استخراج.. 118
۶-۴-۲-۳- مدل سازی استخراج گالیم و آلومینیوم با کمک سطح ساز بوتانل در ۴ = C/S. 120
۶-۴-۲-۴- رسم منحنی­های هم تراز برای گالیم و آلومینیم.. 121
۶-۴-۲-۵- بررسی فاکتور جدایش گالیم و آلومینیوم.. 122
۶-۵- آزمایش­های استخراج با دکانول، نسبت ۲ = C/S. 124
۶-۵-۱- تاثیر درصد وزنی C/S بر روی استخراج.. 126
۶-۵-۲- تاثیر درصد وزنی OF بر روی استخراج.. 127
۶-۵-۳- مدل سازی استخراج گالیم و آلومینیوم با کمک سطح ساز دکانول در ۲ = C/S. 128
۶-۵-۴- رسم منحنی­های هم تراز برای گالیم و آلومینیوم.. 129
۶-۵-۵- بررسی فاکتور جدایش گالیم و آلومینیوم.. 131
۶-۶- بررسی رگرسیون و پارامترهای مرتبط.. 134
۶-۶-۱- بررسی ضرایب مدل­های بدست آمده توسط رگرسیون.. 135
۶-۷- فرایند اسکراب و استریپ.. 135
۶-۸- مقایسه­ی نتایج حاصل از سیستم میکروامولسیون با استخراج حلالی مرسوم   136
فصل هفتم: نتیجه گیری و پیشنهادات
۷-۱- نتیجه گیری.. 142
۷-۲- پیشنهادات.. 143

مراجع.. 145

 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
فهرست جدول­ها

جدول ۱-۱: كشورها و شركت­های تولید كننده­ی گالیم.. 10
جدول ۳-۱: طبقه بندی کاربرد سطح ساز توسط استفاده از عدد HLB سطح ساز   54
جدول ۳-۲: عدد HLB برای گروه­های شیمیایی مختلف.. 55
جدول ۳-۳: مطالعات انجام شده بر روی استخراج فلزات توسط سیستم میکروامولسیون   73
جدول ۵-۱: مشخصات مواد شیمیایی استفاده شده در تحقیق.. 87
جدول ۵-۲: مشخصات تجهیزات مورد استفاده در تحقیق.. 87
جدول ۶-۱: آنالیز شیمیایی محلول آلومینات سدیم جاجرم.. 94
جدول ۶-۲: مشخصات نقاط آزمایش شده برای رسم دیاگرام سه فازی با بوتانل و نسبت ۲ = C/S. 95
جدول ۶-۳: مشخصات نقاط آزمایش شده برای رسم دیاگرام سه فازی با دکانول و نسبت ۴ = C/S. 96
جدول ۶-۴: مشخصات نقاط آزمایش شده برای رسم دیاگرام سه فازی با دکانول و نسبت ۲ = C/S. 96
جدول ۶-۵: ترکیب نقاط انتخاب شده روی دیاگرام سه فازی.. 101

این مطلب را هم بخوانید :

جدول ۶-۶: ترکیب نقاط انتخاب شده و درصد استخراج گالیم و آلومینیوم   106
جدول ۶-۷: آزمون انحراف مدل رگرسیونی برای استخراج گالیم و آلومینیوم   111
جدول ۶-۸: داده­های فاکتور جدایش برای سیستم حاوی بوتانول، با نسبت ۲ = C/S  114
جدول ۶-۹: ترکیب نقاط انتخاب شده و درصد استخراج گالیم و آلومینیوم   116
جدول ۶-۱۰: آزمون انحراف مدل رگرسیونی برای درصد استخراج گالیم و آلومینیوم   120
جدول ۶-۱۱: داده­های فاکتور جدایش برای سیستم حاوی بوتانول، با نسبت ۲ = C/S  123
جدول ۶-۱۲: ترکیب نقاط انتخاب شده و درصد استخراج گالیم و آلومینیوم   124
جدول ۶-۱۳: آزمون انحراف مدل رگرسیونی برای درصد استخراج گالیم و آلومینیوم   129
جدول ۶-۱۴: داده­های فاکتور جدایش برای سیستم حاوی دکانول، با نسبت ۲ = C/S  132
جدول ۶-۱۵: مقادیر ضریب همبستگی برای روش­های مختلف رگرسیون   135
جدول ۶-۱۶: ضرایب مدل­های بدست آمده برای گالیم.. 135
جدول ۶-۱۷: غلظت گالیم و آلومینیوم در فاز آبی و آلی قبل و بعد از استخراج   138
جدول ۶-۱۸: غلظت گالیم و آلومینیوم در فاز آبی و آلی قبل و بعد از اسکراب   138
جدول ۶-۱۹: غلظت گالیم و آلومینیوم در فاز آبی و آلی قبل و بعد از استریپ   138

 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
فهرست شکل­ها

شكل ۱-۱: فرآیند ترسیب بیجا برای بازیابی گالیم از محلول حاصل از فرآیند بایر.. 14
شكل۱-۲: فرآیند الكترولیز برای بازیابی گالیم از مایعات فرآیند بایر   16
شکل ۲-۱: طرح شماتیک از آزمایش استخراج با حلال.. 21
شکل ۲-۲: دیاگرام مک کیب – تیل.. 23
شکل ۲-۳: فرمول عمومی هیدروکسی کوینولین جانشین شده.. 26
شکل ۲-۴: ساختار اجزاء اصلی تشکیل دهنده­ی ۱۰۰ kelex .. 27
شکل ۲-۵: ساختمان مونو و دی- اکتیل فنیل فسفریک اسید.. 39
شکل ۳-۱: دیاگرام سه فازی شماتیک از سیستم میکروامولسیون روغن-آب-سطح ساز   49
شکل ۳-۲: انواع میکروامولسیون­های وینسور.. 50
شکل ۳-۳: طبقه بندی وینسور و توالی فاز میکروامولسیون­ها بر اساس دما یا درجه­ی شوری به ترتیب برای سطح سازهای غیر یونی و یونی.. 51
شکل ۳-۴: دیاگرام سه فازی انواع مختلف سیستم­های میکروامولسیون که توسط وینسور طبقه بندی شده­اند.. 52
شکل ۳-۵: دیاگرام سه فازی که ناحیه­ی میکروامولسیون روغن در آب، L1 و ناحیه­ی میکروامولسیون آب در روغن، L2 را نشان می­دهد.. 57
شکل ۳-۶: میکروامولسیون آب در روغن.. 59
شکل ۳-۷: میکروامولسیون روغن در آب.. 60
شکل ۳-۸: موقعیت­های ممکن قابلیت حل شدن در یک میسل.. 62
شکل ۳-۹: دیاگرام سه فازی استخراج تنگستن و نقاط انتخاب شده بر روی آن   67
شکل ۳-۱۰: منحنی هم تراز استخراج تنگستن.. 68
شکل ۳-۱۱: منحنی هم تراز استریپینگ تنگستن.. 68
شکل ۴-۱: نمایی از واحد دریافت و خردایش سنگ بوکسیت.. 77
شکل ۴-۲: واحد انحلال لوله­ای.. 78
شکل ۴-۳: واحد تجزیه­ی محلول و ترسیب.. 79
شکل ۴-۴: واحد تکلیس هیدرات و تولید آلومینا.. 80
شکل ۴-۵: واحد ته نشینی گل قرمز.. 81
شکل ۴-۶: واحد تبخیر و تغلیظ و بازیابی سود سوز آور.. 82
شکل ۴-۷: فرایند تولید آلومینا از بوکسیت.. 83
شکل ۵-۱: محیط نرم افزار Origin Pro 8.6. 91
شکل ۵-۲: محیط نرم افزار IBM SPSS Statistice 22. 91
شکل ۶-۱: دیاگرام سه فازی مربوط به کمک سطح سازهای بوتانل و دکانول   97
شکل ۶-۲: دیاگرام سه فازی برای سیستم شامل آب/کروزین/SCO+الکل   98
شکل ۶-۳: تاثیر نسبت C/S بر روی منطقه­ی میکروامولسیون برای سیستم شامل آب/کروزین/SCO+بوتانول.. 99
شکل ۶-۴: دیاگرام سه فازی؛ سیستم I: شامل SCO/بوتانول/کروزین/محلول بایر؛ سیستم II: شامل Kelex-100/بوتانول/کروزین/محلول بایر.. 100
شکل ۶-۵: نقاط انتخاب شده روی دیاگرام سه فازی برای آزمایش­های اولیه   102
شکل ۶-۶: تغییرات استخراج نسبت به زمان برای نقطه­ی A از شکل ۶-۵   103
شکل ۶-۷: تغییرات استخراج نسبت به زمان برای نقطه­ی F از شکل ۶-۵   103
شکل ۶-۸: تغییرات استخراج گالیم و آلومینیوم بر حسب نوع کمک سطح ساز   104
شکل ۶-۹: مولکول بوتانول.. 105
شکل ۶-۱۰: مشخصات نقاط انتخاب شده بر روی دیاگرام سه فازی بوتانول با نسبت ۲ = C/S برای استخراج گالیم.. 106
شکل ۶-۱۱: تغییرات استخراج گالیم و آلومینیوم به صورت تابعی از درصد وزنی C/S در درصد وزنی فاز آبی ثابت.. 107
شکل ۶-۱۲: تغییرات استخراج گالیم و آلومینیوم نسبت به تغییرات درصد وزنی C/S، OF = 10%.. 108
شکل ۶-۱۳: تغییرات استخراج گالیم و آلومینیوم به صورت تابعی از درصد وزنی OF، AF = 20%.. 109
شکل ۶-۱۴: تغییرات استخراج گالیم و آلومینیوم به صورت تابعی از درصد وزنی OF، C/S = 20%.. 109
شکل ۶-۱۵: منحنی هم تراز استخراج گالیم برای سیستم حاوی بوتانول با نسبت ۲ = C/S. 112

The present study aimed at the effectiveness of task types (noticing-reformulation) on Iranian upper- Intermediate EFL Learners’ retention of collocations. The study follows a two-group pretest, treatment, post-test design which was documented 40 upper-intermediate Iranian EFL learners with the same proficiency level measured by an OPT test and two non- native English teachers. The participants were randomly assigned to an experimental and control group that were exposed to Noticing-Reformulation tasks and traditional methods respectively to determine whether there was any development in the long-term retention of collocations. Analysis of the data obtained from independent-samples t-tests along with the Pearson product-moment correlation coefficient indicated that there were significant quantitative and statistical differences in the output of participants from the two different groups, with learners who participated in the experimental group outperforming and incorporating significantly more retention of collocations in the immediate and delayed post-test than learners from the control group. Key Words: Noticing, Reformulation, Collocation, Retention, Output, OPT. Table of Content Title Page CHAPTER 1: Introduction 1.0. Introduction ……………………………………………………..………………..1 1.1. Theoretical Framework ……………………………………………….……….…3 1.2. Statement of the Problem ……………………………………………….…….….5 1.3. Significance and Purpose of the Study………………………………………..….6 1.4. Research Questions of the Study …………………………………………..……7 1.5. Hypotheses of the Study…………………………………………….……………7 1.6. Definitions of Key Terms………………………………………………….….….8 1.6.1.Collocation………………………………………………………………………8 1.6.2. Noticing………………………………………………………….…….…….…8 1.6.3. Reformulation …………………………………………………..………….…..8 1.6.4. Task ……………………………………………………………………..…..….9 1.6.5. Intake ………………………………………………………………..…….……9 1.6.6. Noticing the Gap………………………………………………………….…….9 1.6.7. Retention …………………………………………………………..…………..10 1.7. Summary………………………………………………………….………..….…1 CHAPTER 2: LITERATURE REVIW 2.0. Introduction……………………………………………………………….…..….11 2.1. Feedback Research in SLA……………………………………………………….11 2.1.1. The role of feedback in SLA……………………………………………………11 2.2. Psycholinguistic Processes in Second Language Acquisition …………………..21 2.2.1. Noticing and learning……………………………………………………..……21 2.2.2. The Noticing Hypothesis and SLA……………………………………………..27 2.2.3. Noticing, Intake and Subliminal Perception……………………………..…….35 2.2.4. Individual Differences in Noticing and Awareness ……………………….…..36 2.2.5. A Critical Review of Noticing Hypothesis in SLA………………………..…..37 2.3. The Theories of Vocabulary Acquisition……………………….………………..42 2.3.1. Collocation……………………………………………………………….…….42 2.3.2. Research on collocations………………………………………………..……..44 2.4. Noticing, Awareness and Attention in Learning Collocations………………….47 2.5. Problems in Collocation Production………………………………….……..…..49 2.6. Vocabulary Retention……………………………………………………………50 2.7. Summary……………………………………………………………………..….51 CHAPTER3: METHODOLOGY 3.0. Introduction……………………………………………………………….….….52 3.1. The Design of the Study………………………………………………………….52 3.2. Participants……………………………………………………………..……..…53 3.3. Materials ……………………………………………………………………..…..53 3.3.1. Concordance Software for Text Analysis………………………………..……54 3.3.2. Testing Instruments…………………………………………………………….54 3.3.2.1. The Self-report and Collocation Pre-test…………………………….………54 3.3.2.2. Immediate Collocation Retention Post-test……………………….…….…..54 3.3.2.3. Delayed Collocation Retention Post-test ………………………………..….55 3.3.3. Questionnaires …………………………………………………………….…..55 3.4. Procedure…………………………………………………………………….…..57 3.4.1. Week 1: Self-report Collocation Pretest/ Comparison Session………………..58 3.4.2. Week 3: Immediate Collocation Retention Post-test……………………….….59 3.4.4. Delayed Collocation Retention Post-test………………………………………59 3.5. Methods of Analyzing Data……………………………………………………..60 3.6. Scoring……………………………………….………………………………..…61 3.7. Summary…………………………………………………………………..……..61 CHAPTER4: RESULTS AND DATA ANALYSIS 4.0. Introduction………………………………………………………………………62 4.1. Data Analysis and Findings ………………………………………………….…62 4.1.1. The descriptive Analysis of the Data……………………………………..……62 4.1.2. Inferential Analysis of the Data……………………………………………..…66 4.2. Results of the Hypothesis Testing…………………………………………..……68 4.3. Summary……………………………………………………………………….…68 CHAPTER5: DISCUSSIONS AND IMPLICATIONS 5.0. Introduction………………………………………………………………..…..…69 5.1. General Discussion…………………………………………………………..……69 5.1.1. Discussion of the Findings Gained by the Questionnaire………………..……70 5.2. Implications of the Study…………………………………………………………71 5.2.1. Theoretical Implications……………………………….……………….………71 5.2.2. Pedagogical Implications………………………..…………………………..…71 5.3. Limitations of the Study………………………………………….…………….…72 5.4. Suggestions for Further Research………………………………………..………73 5.5. Summary …………………………………………………………………….……73 REFRENCES…………………………………………………….……..……………74 LIST OF APPENDICES Appendix A: Oxford Placement Test (OPT)…………………………………………90 Appendix B: Self-report Collocation Pretest …………………….……………….….96 Appendix C: Pretest Administered for Participants of Both Groups (Exactly the same test was given for immediate and delayed post-tests)………………………………..96 Appendix D: Post-test Administered for Participants of Both Groups ………..…..…97 Appendix E: Questionnaire………………………………………………..……….…98 List of Tables Title Page Table 2.1. Comparison of reformulation and direct correction …………………….. 15 Table 3.1. Data collection procedure of the study ……………………………………58 Table 4.1. Group Statistics for the Delayed Post-test…………………………………63 Table 4.2. Group Statistics for the Immediate Post-test………………………………63 Table 4.3. Correlations Between the Pretest and Delayed Post-test of Experimental Group…64 Table 4.4. Correlations Between the Pre and Delayed Post-test of Control Group….64 Table 4.5. Correlations Between Pre and Immediate Post-test of Experimental Group and Control Group…………………………………………………………………….65 Table 4.6. Correlations Between Pre and Immediate Post-test of Control Group .…65 Table 4.7.Independent-samples t-test for Immediate Post-test…………………….…66 Table 4.8. Independent-samples t-test for Delayed Post-test…………………………67 Chapter one Introduction 1.0. Introduction Achieving the goals of L2 collocation instruction is no easy matter. Even a well-planned collocation lesson based on contemporary pedagogical principles cannot guarantee that learners will acquire the natural co-occurrence of words that is taught. For anyone teaching or learning a foreign language, collocation is undoubtedly one of the most fascinating challenges that they will encounter, but nevertheless can be frustrating at times. Equally, for those who are into researching foreign language collocation knowledge, learning and retention. Within the last few years learning collocations has become of paramount significance and the focus of an overwhelming majority of research studies. The pivotal aim of the researches carried out in the field has been investigating the factors and variables, which contribute to successful collocation learning, and ways of storing the most possible collocations in long-term memory. During the last decades the area of foreign language learning has been marked by a true explosion of research into collocation The present study aimed at the effectiveness of task types (noticing-reformulation) on Iranian upper- Intermediate EFL Learners’ retention of collocations. The study follows a two-group pretest, treatment, post-test design which was documented 40 upper-intermediate Iranian EFL learners with the same proficiency level measured by an OPT test and two non- native English teachers. The participants were randomly assigned to an experimental and control group that were exposed to Noticing-Reformulation tasks and traditional methods respectively to determine whether there was any development in the long-term retention of collocations. Analysis of the data obtained from independent-samples t-tests along with the Pearson product-moment correlation coefficient indicated that there were significant quantitative and statistical differences in the output of participants from the two different groups, with learners who participated in the experimental group outperforming and incorporating significantly more retention of collocations in the immediate and delayed post-test than learners from the control group. Key Words: Noticing, Reformulation, Collocation, Retention, Output, OPT. Table of Content Title Page CHAPTER 1: Introduction 1.0. Introduction ……………………………………………………..………………..1 1.1. Theoretical Framework ……………………………………………….……….…3 1.2. Statement of the Problem ……………………………………………….…….….5 1.3. Significance and Purpose of the Study………………………………………..….6 1.4. Research Questions of the Study …………………………………………..……7 1.5. Hypotheses of the Study…………………………………………….……………7 1.6. Definitions of Key Terms………………………………………………….….….8 1.6.1.Collocation………………………………………………………………………8 1.6.2. Noticing………………………………………………………….…….…….…8 1.6.3. Reformulation …………………………………………………..………….…..8 1.6.4. Task ……………………………………………………………………..…..….9 1.6.5. Intake ………………………………………………………………..…….……9 1.6.6. Noticing the Gap………………………………………………………….…….9 1.6.7. Retention …………………………………………………………..…………..10 1.7. Summary………………………………………………………….………..….…1 CHAPTER 2: LITERATURE REVIW 2.0. Introduction……………………………………………………………….…..….11 2.1. Feedback Research in SLA……………………………………………………….11 2.1.1. The role of feedback in SLA……………………………………………………11 2.2. Psycholinguistic Processes in Second Language Acquisition …………………..21 2.2.1. Noticing and learning……………………………………………………..……21 2.2.2. The Noticing Hypothesis and SLA……………………………………………..27 2.2.3. Noticing, Intake and Subliminal Perception……………………………..…….35 2.2.4. Individual Differences in Noticing and Awareness ……………………….…..36 2.2.5. A Critical Review of Noticing Hypothesis in SLA………………………..…..37 2.3. The Theories of Vocabulary Acquisition……………………….………………..42 2.3.1. Collocation……………………………………………………………….…….42 2.3.2. Research on collocations………………………………………………..……..44 2.4. Noticing, Awareness and Attention in Learning Collocations………………….47 2.5. Problems in Collocation Production………………………………….……..…..49 2.6. Vocabulary Retention……………………………………………………………50 2.7. Summary……………………………………………………………………..….51 CHAPTER3: METHODOLOGY 3.0. Introduction……………………………………………………………….….….52 3.1. The Design of the Study………………………………………………………….52 3.2. Participants……………………………………………………………..……..…53 3.3. Materials ……………………………………………………………………..…..53 3.3.1. Concordance Software for Text Analysis………………………………..……54 3.3.2. Testing Instruments…………………………………………………………….54 3.3.2.1. The Self-report and Collocation Pre-test…………………………….………54 3.3.2.2. Immediate Collocation Retention Post-test……………………….…….…..54 3.3.2.3. Delayed Collocation Retention Post-test ………………………………..….55 3.3.3. Questionnaires …………………………………………………………….…..55 3.4. Procedure…………………………………………………………………….…..57 3.4.1. Week 1: Self-report Collocation Pretest/ Comparison Session………………..58 3.4.2. Week 3: Immediate Collocation Retention Post-test……………………….….59 3.4.4. Delayed Collocation Retention Post-test………………………………………59 3.5. Methods of Analyzing Data……………………………………………………..60 3.6. Scoring……………………………………….………………………………..…61 3.7. Summary…………………………………………………………………..……..61 CHAPTER4: RESULTS AND DATA ANALYSIS 4.0. Introduction………………………………………………………………………62 4.1. Data Analysis and Findings ………………………………………………….…62 4.1.1. The descriptive Analysis of the Data……………………………………..……62 4.1.2. Inferential Analysis of the Data……………………………………………..…66 4.2. Results of the Hypothesis Testing…………………………………………..……68 4.3. Summary……………………………………………………………………….…68 CHAPTER5: DISCUSSIONS AND IMPLICATIONS 5.0. Introduction………………………………………………………………..…..…69 5.1. General Discussion…………………………………………………………..……69 5.1.1. Discussion of the Findings Gained by the Questionnaire………………..……70 5.2. Implications of the Study…………………………………………………………71 5.2.1. Theoretical Implications……………………………….……………….………71 5.2.2. Pedagogical Implications………………………..…………………………..…71 5.3. Limitations of the Study………………………………………….…………….…72 5.4. Suggestions for Further Research………………………………………..………73 5.5. Summary …………………………………………………………………….……73 REFRENCES…………………………………………………….……..……………74 LIST OF APPENDICES Appendix A: Oxford Placement Test (OPT)…………………………………………90 Appendix B: Self-report Collocation Pretest …………………….……………….….96 Appendix C: Pretest Administered for Participants of Both Groups (Exactly the same test was given for immediate and delayed post-tests)………………………………..96 Appendix D: Post-test Administered for Participants of Both Groups ………..…..…97 Appendix E: Questionnaire………………………………………………..……….…98 List of Tables Title Page Table 2.1. Comparison of reformulation and direct correction …………………….. 15 Table 3.1. Data collection procedure of the study ……………………………………58 Table 4.1. Group Statistics for the Delayed Post-test…………………………………63 Table 4.2. Group Statistics for the Immediate Post-test………………………………63 Table 4.3. Correlations Between the Pretest and Delayed Post-test of Experimental Group…64 Table 4.4. Correlations Between the Pre and Delayed Post-test of Control Group….64 Table 4.5. Correlations Between Pre and Immediate Post-test of Experimental Group and Control این مطلب را هم بخوانید : این مطلب را هم بخوانید : Group…………………………………………………………………….65 Table 4.6. Correlations Between Pre and Immediate Post-test of Control Group .…65 Table 4.7.Independent-samples t-test for Immediate Post-test…………………….…66 Table 4.8. Independent-samples t-test for Delayed Post-test…………………………67 Chapter one Introduction 1.0. Introduction Achieving the goals of L2 collocation instruction is no easy matter. Even a well-planned collocation lesson based on contemporary pedagogical principles cannot guarantee that learners will acquire the natural co-occurrence of words that is taught. For anyone teaching or learning a foreign language, collocation is undoubtedly one of the most fascinating challenges that they will encounter, but nevertheless can be frustrating at times. Equally, for those who are into researching foreign language collocation knowledge, learning and retention. Within the last few years learning collocations has become of paramount significance and the focus of an overwhelming majority of research studies. The pivotal aim of the researches carried out in the field has been investigating the factors and variables, which contribute to successful collocation learning, and ways of storing the most possible collocations in long-term memory. During the last decades the area of foreign language learning has been marked by a true explosion of research into collocation learning strategies that emanated from the first attempt at pinpointing reasons why some learners achieve better results in collocation learning and retention than their peers. Accordingly, wide-ranging volumes of research in collocation learning have been published in the last 20 years or so, but not all of them have reported sufficient collocation knowledge among EFL learners and have rarely embraced dedicated studies investigating into the impact of using Noticing-Reformulation technique on collocation knowledge and retention. learning strategies that emanated from the first attempt at pinpointing reasons why some learners achieve better results in collocation learning and retention than their peers. Accordingly, wide-ranging volumes of research in collocation learning have been published in the last 20 years or so, but not all of them have reported sufficient collocation knowledge among EFL learners and have rarely embraced dedicated studies investigating into the impact of using Noticing-Reformulation technique on collocation knowledge and retention.