The thrust of the current study was to investigate the relationship among EFL learners’ use of language learning strategies (SILL), learning style preferences (PLSP), and creativity (CR). To this end, a group of 148 male and female learners, between the ages of 19 and 32, majoring in English Translation and English Literature at Islamic Azad University, Central Tehran were randomly selected and were given three questionnaires: the Strategy Inventory for Language Learning (SILL) questionnaire by Oxford (1990), the Perceptual Learning Style Preference (PLSP) questionnaire by Reid (1984), and a questionnaire of creativity (ACT) by O’Neil, Abedi, and Spielberger (1992). The relationship among language learning strategies, learning style preferences, and creativity was investigated using Pearson’s product-moment correlation coefficient. Preliminary analyses were performed to ensure no violation of the assumptions of normality, linearity and homoscedasticity. The results of this study indicated that there were significant and positive correlations between EFL learners’ learning strategies and learning style preferences (r = 0.83, p < 0.05), learning strategies and creativity (r=0.73, p < 0.05), and learning style preferences and creativity (r = 0.88, p < 0.05). Also, there were significant and positive correlations among different language learning strategies and learning style preferences, different language learning strategies and creativity, and different learning style preferences and creativity.  Running multiple regression showed that social strategy predicted 79.9 percent of scores on creativity, cognitive strategy increased the predictive power to 82.1 percent, affective strategy added up the percentage of prediction to 82.6 percent, and finally the metacognitive strategy leveled the prediction to 93.2 percent. Also, results of multiple regression for learning styles showed Kinesthetic learning style is the only variable entering the model to predict 93.1 percent of scores on creativity. It can be concluded that the obtained results may help EFL teachers and educators to bear in mind the benefits of developing their learners’ learning strategies and learning style preferences when dealing with promoting creativity in learners.

 

TABLE OF CONTENTS

DEDICATION.. IV

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS. IV

ABSTRACT.. v.

TABLE OF CONTENTS ………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..VI

LISTS OF TABLES. IX

LISTS OF FIGURES. XI

LISTS OF ABBREVIATIONS. XII

CHAPTER I: BACKGROUND AND PURPOSE. 1

1.1Introduction. 2

1.2 Statement of the Problem… 7

1.3 Statement of the Research Questions. 8

1.4 Statement of the Research Hypotheses. 10

1.5 Definition of Key Terms. 11

1.5.1 Language Learning Strategies. 11

1.5.2 Learning Style preferences. 12

1.5.3 Creativity. 12

1.6 Significance of the Study. 13

The thrust of the current study was to investigate the relationship among EFL learners’ use of language learning strategies (SILL), learning style preferences (PLSP), and creativity (CR). To this end, a group of 148 male and female learners, between the ages of 19 and 32, majoring in English Translation and English Literature at Islamic Azad University, Central Tehran were randomly selected and were given three questionnaires: the Strategy Inventory for Language Learning (SILL) questionnaire by Oxford (1990), the Perceptual Learning Style Preference (PLSP) questionnaire by Reid (1984), and a questionnaire of creativity (ACT) by O’Neil, Abedi, and Spielberger (1992). The relationship among language learning strategies, learning style preferences, and creativity was investigated using Pearson’s product-moment correlation coefficient. Preliminary analyses were performed to ensure no violation of the assumptions of normality, linearity and homoscedasticity. The results of this study indicated that there were significant and positive correlations between EFL learners’ learning strategies and learning style preferences (r = 0.83, p < 0.05), learning strategies and creativity (r=0.73, p < 0.05), and learning style preferences and creativity (r = 0.88, p < 0.05). Also, there were significant and positive correlations among different language learning strategies and learning style preferences, different language learning strategies and creativity, and different learning style preferences and creativity.  Running multiple regression showed that social strategy predicted 79.9 percent of scores on creativity, cognitive strategy increased the predictive power to 82.1 percent, affective strategy added up the percentage of prediction to 82.6 percent, and finally the metacognitive strategy leveled the prediction to 93.2 percent. Also, results of multiple regression for learning styles showed Kinesthetic learning style is the only variable entering the model to predict 93.1 percent of scores on creativity. It can be concluded that the obtained results may help EFL teachers and educators to bear in mind the benefits of developing their learners’ learning strategies and learning style preferences when dealing with promoting creativity in learners.

 

TABLE OF CONTENTS

DEDICATION.. IV

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS. IV

ABSTRACT.. v.

TABLE OF CONTENTS ………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..VI

LISTS OF TABLES. IX

LISTS OF FIGURES. XI

LISTS OF ABBREVIATIONS. XII

CHAPTER I: BACKGROUND AND PURPOSE. 1

1.1Introduction. 2

1.2 Statement of the Problem… 7

1.3 Statement of the Research Questions. 8

1.4 Statement of the Research Hypotheses. 10

1.5 Definition of Key Terms. 11

1.5.1 Language Learning Strategies. 11

1.5.2 Learning Style preferences. 12

1.5.3 Creativity. 12

1.6 Significance of the Study. 13

1.7 Limitations, Delimitations and Assumptions. 16

1.7.1 Limitations. 16

1.7.2 Delimitations. 18

1.7.3 Assumptions. 19

CHAPTER II: REVIEW OF THE RELATED LITERATURE.. 20

2.1         Introduction. 21

2.2         Language Learning Strategies. 21

2.2.1      Definitions of Language Learning Strategies. 22

2.2.2 Background of Research on Language Learning Strategies. 25

2.2.3      Taxonomies of Language Learning Strategies. 26

2.2.4      Method to Investigate Learning Strategies. 35

2.2.5      Researches on Learning Strategies. 38

2.3 Language Learning Style. 43

2.3.1 What is Learning Style?. 43

2.3.2 Development of Learning Style. 45

2.3.3 Background of Research on Learning Styles. 54

2.3.4 Fundamentals of Learning Styles. 55

2.3.5 Definitions of Learning Styles. 56

2.3.6 Researches on Learning Styles. 60

2.3.7 Differences between Language Learning Styles and Strategies. 65

2.4 Creativity. 66

2.4.1 The History of Creativity. 66

2.4.2 The Background of Creativity. 68

2.4.3 Attributes of Creativity. 70

2.4.4 Barriers to Creativity. 72

2.4.5 Promoting Creativity. 73

2.4.6 Important Cognitive Processes Involved in Creativity. 75

2.4.7 Researches on Creativity. 77

CHAPTER III: METHOD.. 80

3.1 Introduction. 81

3.2 Participants. 81

3.3 Instrumentation. 82

3.3.1 Strategy Inventory for Language Learning (SILL) 82

3.3.2 The Perceptual Learning Style Preference (PLSP) 86

3.3.3 Creativity Questionnaire (ACT) 89

3.4 Procedure. 93

3.5 Design. 95

3.6 Statistical Analyses. 95

CHAPTER IV: RESULTS AND DISCUSSION 97

4.1 Introduction. 98

4.2 Results of the Study. 100

4.2.1 Testing Assumptions. 100

4.3 Testing the Null Hypotheses. 108

4.3.1 Testing the First Null Hypothesis. 108

4.3.2 Testing the Second Null Hypothesis. 112

4.3.3 Testing the Third Null Hypothesis. 115

4.3.4 Testing the Fourth Null Hypothesis. 119

4.3.5 Testing the Fifth Null Hypothesis. 123

4.3.6 Testing the Sixth Null Hypothesis. 127

4.3.7 Testing the Seventh Null Hypothesis. 132

4.3.8 Testing the Eighth Null Hypothesis. 136

4.4 Construct Validity. 139

4.5 Conclusion. 142

CHAPTER V: CONCLUSION AND PEDAGOGICAL IMPLICATIONS. 146

5.1 Introduction. 147

5.2 Procedure and Summary of the Findings. 147

5.3 Discussion. 153

5.4 Pedagogical Implications. 158

5.4.1 Implication for EFL Teachers. 158

5.4.2 Implication for EFL Learners. 160

5.4.3 Implications for EFL Syllabus Designers, Curriculum Developers and Material Producers. 161

5.5. Suggestions for Further Research. 162

REFERENCES. 164

APPENDICES. 184

     

 

 

 

 

 

 

LISTS OF TABLES

 

Table 3.1:  Reliability Index of SILL and Its Subcomponents ……………………….….…….…87

Table 3.2:  Reliability Index of PLSP and Its Subcomponents ……………………..…….……….90

Table 3.3: Subcomponents and Items of the Persian Creativity Test …………………..…………..93

Table 3.4: Reliability Index of Creativity Questionnaire………………………………………….94

Table 4.1: Descriptive Statistics of SILL………………………………..………………..….……102

Table 4.2: Descriptive Statistics of PLSP……………………………………………………….104

Table 4.3: Descriptive Statistics of ACT……………………………………………………….105

Table 4.4: Correlations between Language Learning Strategies, Learning Style Preferences

and Creativity..………………………………………………………………………110

Table 4.5: Correlations between Subcomponents of Language Learning Strategies and Learning

Styles Preferences……………………………………………………………………114

Table 4.6: Correlation between EFL Learners’ Language Learning Strategies and Creativity…117

Table 4.7: Correlations between EFL Learners’ learning Style Preferences.and Creativity…… 121

Table 4.8: Model Summary; Regression Analysis Predicting Creativity by Using Components                              of Learning Style Preferences and Language Learning Strategies…………….……125

Table 4.9: ANOVA Test of Significance of Regression Model Predicting Creativity by Using

Subcomponents of Learning Style and Strategies……………………….…………..127

Table 4.10: Model Summary, Regression Analysis Predicting Learning Strategy by Using Sub- components of Learning Style Preferences ………………………………………….129

Table 4.11: ANOVA Test of Significance of Regression Model Predicting Learning Strategy by Using the Subcomponents of Learning Style Preferences………………………….130

Table 4.12: Excluded Variables of Learning Style Preferences………………………………..130

Table 4.13: Model Summary; Regression Analysis Predicting Creativity by Using Components

of Language Learning Strategies………………………………….……………….133

Table 4.14: ANOVA Test of Significance of Regression Model Predicting Creativity by Using

Components of Language Learning Strategies…………………………………….134

Table 4.15: Model Summary; Regression Analysis Predicting Creativity by Using Components

of Learning Style Preferences……………………………………………………..136

Table 4.16: ANOVA Test of Significance of Regression Model; Predicting Creativity by Using

Components of Learning Style Preferences………………………………………..137

Table 4.17: Sampling Adequacy and Sphericity Assumptions………………..………………..139

Table 4.18: Total Variance Explained……………………………………………………….…140

Table 4.19: Rotated Components Matrix…………………………………………….…..….….141

Table 4.20:  Summary of the Findings ………………………………………………………….143

 

 

 

LISTS OF FIGURES

 

Figure 4.1: Scatter Plot of Testing Linearity Assumption of Language Learning Strategies and

Learning Style Preferences………………………..………………………………..106

Figure 4.2: Scatter Plot of Testing Linearity Assumption of Language Learning Strategy and

Creativity……………………………………………………………………..…….107

Figure 4.3: Scatter Plot of Testing Linearity Assumption of Learning Style Preferences and

Creativity………………………………………………………………..………….107

Figure 4.4: Scatter Plot of Studentized Residuals for Creativity…………………….………….109

Figure 4.5: Scatter Plot of Testing Linearity Assumption of Language Learning Strategies,

Learning Style Preferences and Creativity…………………………………….…..112

Figure 4.6: Linearity Assumption of EFL Learners’ Language Learning Strategies and

Creativity……………………………………………………………………………..118

Figure 4.7: Scatter Plot of Testing Linearity Assumption of EFL Learners’ Learning Style

Preferences and Creativity………………………………………………..………….123

Figure 4.8: Scatter Plot of Predicting Creativity by Using Components of Language Learning

Strategies and Learning Style Preferences……………………………………………128

Figure 4.9: Scatter Plot of Testing Assumptions of Linearity and Homoscedasticity………….131

Figure 4.10: Scatter plot of Predicting Creativity by Using Components of Language Learning

Strategies………………………………………………………………………….135

Figure 4.11: Scatter plot of Predicting Creativity by Using Components of Learning Style

Preferences………………………………………………………………………..138

 

LISTS OF ABBREVIATIONS

 

 

L1: Native Language

L2: Foreign Language

ESL: English as a Second Language

EFL: English as a Foreign Language

CR: Creativity

PLSP: Perceptual Learning Style Preference

SILL: Strategy Inventory for Language Learning

ACT: Abedi-Schumacher Creativity Test

 

 

 

CHAPTER I

 

 

 

BACKGROUND AND PURPOSE

 

 

 

1.1  Introduction

 

Today, it is almost known that each learner has his/her especial way of learning that may have a fundamental role in his/her success or failure (Fewell, 2010; Zare & Noordin, 2011). Over the recent decades most of the researchers have gradually moved from focusing on teaching paradigms toward exploring individual characteristics (Carson & Longhini, 2002; Oxford & Anderson, 1995). Therefore, the individuals and their differences have been the subject of many studies. Along these lines it seems that there is a highly demanding need to expand studies in these lines (Ghonsooly, Elahi, & Golparvar, 2012; Gilakjani & Ahmadi, 2011; Mohebi & Khodadady, 2011). As Grenbell and Harris (1999) state “methodology alone can never be a solution to language learning. Rather it is an aid and suggestion” (p.10). Most of the theories of learning are all attempts to describe universal human traits in learning (Brown, 2007). They seek to explain globally how people perceive, filter, store, and recall information. Such processes do not account for the differences across individuals in the way they learn, or for differences within any one individual (Brown, 2007) which are very important factors in the process of learning.

Among different personal traits, individual learners’ learning style preferences provide valuable insights into the educational context (Felder & Spurlin, 2005; Sternberg, 1990; Xu, 2011).  Learning style is inherent and pervasive and is a blend of cognitive, affective, and behavioral elements (Willing, 1988). Learning style includes four aspects of a person: a) preferred or habitual patterns of mental functioning; b) patterns of attitudes and interests that affect what an individual will pay most attention to in a learning situation; c) a tendency to seek situations compatible with one’s own learning patterns; and d) a tendency to use certain learning strategies and avoid others (Brown, 2000).

Keefe (as cited in Brown, 2000) stated that learning styles might be thought of as “cognitive, affective, and physiological traits that are relatively stable indicators of how learners perceive, interact with, and respond to the learning environment” (p. 114).

Dyer (1995) noted that each preferred learning style has a matching preferred method of instruction. When mismatches exist between learning styles of the learners in a class and the teaching style of the teacher, the students may become bored and inattentive in class, do poorly on tests, get discouraged about the courses, the curriculum, and themselves, and in some cases change to other curricula or drop out of school (Felder, 1996). Therefore, identifying these learning styles, which are stated by Cornett (1983) as the overall patterns that give general direction to learning behavior, might be a key element to raise instructors’ awareness of their weaknesses and strengths and impede negative feedbacks. Accordingly, Reid (1995) states that developing an understanding of learning environments and styles “will enable students to take control of their learning and to maximize their potential for learning” (p. 25).

Also, Brown (2007) believes that every individual approaches a problem or learns a set of facts from a unique perspective. In this view, the learner is considered as an active participant that the effects of teaching will be partly dependant on what s/he knows such as his/her prior knowledge, what s/he thinks about during learning and his/her active cognitive processes (Weinstein & Underwood, 1985). This has brought attention to language learning strategies which an individual learner applies during the learning process to facilitate second language learning (Oxford, 1990; Wenden, 1991).

Learning strategies are “any set of operations, plans, or routines used by learners to facilitate the obtaining, retrieval, storage and use of information” (Macaro, 2006, p. 342).

Many scholars such as Eliss (1994); O’Malley and Chamot (1996); Oxford (1990); Rubin (1978); Stern (1992) have classified learning strategies into categories, but Oxford’s classification is popular (Eliss, 2008). Her taxonomy consists of direct and indirect strategies. Direct strategies are specific procedures that learners can use to improve their language skills. Indirect strategies, on the other hand, include things such as evaluating one’s learning and cooperating with others (Elis, 2008). Furthermore, the frequency use of strategies and particular types of strategies vary among EFL learners. In this respect the influential effect of learning style should also be considered as suggested by Carson & Longhini, (2002); and Littlemore, (2001).

Researchers such as Ehrman (1989) and Oxford (1995) suggest that learning style has a significant influence on students’ choice of learning strategies, and that both styles and strategies affect learning outcomes. But in spite of the diversity of researches on learning styles and strategies, relatively no studies have addressed the relationship between these two variables and another very influential factor in foreign language learning process called creativity (CR).

Humans are all born with a potential for creativity and creativity can be nurtured “at all stages and in all fields of human endeavor” (Sarsani, 2005, p. 47). To this end, according to Agarwal (1992), developing CR at all levels in the education system is increasingly recognized as being critical in improving educational attainment and life skills, particularly in second or foreign language learning and teaching.  “Discussion of creativity in relation to language teaching and learning has been extensive and continues to be a very major point of application of a wide range of theories of creativity” (Carter, 2004, p. 213). In fact, “Creativity is an inherent aspect of all pedagogical tasks” (Mishan, 2005, p. 83).

The field of creativity as it is known today has been developed basically thanks to the outstanding attempts made by Guilford and Torrance (Sternberg, 2009). In the modern world, creativity is fundamentally important in all aspects of life and since creativity is complex in nature different viewpoints have been put forward to explain the concept emphasizing different aspects of it (Sarsani, 2006).

 

1.7 Limitations, Delimitations and Assumptions. 16

1.7.1 Limitations. 16

1.7.2 Delimitations. 18

1.7.3 Assumptions. 19

CHAPTER II: REVIEW OF THE RELATED LITERATURE.. 20

2.1         Introduction. 21

2.2         Language Learning Strategies. 21

2.2.1      Definitions of Language Learning Strategies. 22

2.2.2 Background of Research on Language Learning Strategies. 25

2.2.3      Taxonomies of Language Learning Strategies. 26

2.2.4      Method to Investigate Learning Strategies. 35

2.2.5      Researches on Learning Strategies. 38

2.3 Language Learning Style. 43

2.3.1 What is Learning Style?. 43

2.3.2 Development of Learning Style. 45

2.3.3 Background of Research on Learning Styles. 54

2.3.4 Fundamentals of Learning Styles. 55

2.3.5 Definitions of Learning Styles. 56

2.3.6 Researches on Learning Styles. 60

2.3.7 Differences between Language Learning Styles and Strategies. 65

2.4 Creativity. 66

2.4.1 The History of Creativity. 66

2.4.2 The Background of Creativity. 68

2.4.3 Attributes of Creativity. 70

2.4.4 Barriers to Creativity. 72

2.4.5 Promoting Creativity. 73

2.4.6 Important Cognitive Processes Involved in Creativity. 75

2.4.7 Researches on Creativity. 77

این مطلب را هم بخوانید :

CHAPTER III: METHOD.. 80

3.1 Introduction. 81

3.2 Participants. 81

3.3 Instrumentation. 82

3.3.1 Strategy Inventory for Language Learning (SILL) 82

3.3.2 The Perceptual Learning Style Preference (PLSP) 86

3.3.3 Creativity Questionnaire (ACT) 89

3.4 Procedure. 93

3.5 Design. 95

3.6 Statistical Analyses. 95

CHAPTER IV: RESULTS AND DISCUSSION 97

4.1 Introduction. 98

4.2 Results of the Study. 100

4.2.1 Testing Assumptions. 100

4.3 Testing the Null Hypotheses. 108

4.3.1 Testing the First Null Hypothesis. 108

4.3.2 Testing the Second Null Hypothesis. 112

4.3.3 Testing the Third Null Hypothesis. 115

4.3.4 Testing the Fourth Null Hypothesis. 119

4.3.5 Testing the Fifth Null Hypothesis. 123

4.3.6 Testing the Sixth Null Hypothesis. 127

4.3.7 Testing the Seventh Null Hypothesis. 132

4.3.8 Testing the Eighth Null Hypothesis. 136

4.4 Construct Validity. 139

4.5 Conclusion. 142

CHAPTER V: CONCLUSION AND PEDAGOGICAL IMPLICATIONS. 146

5.1 Introduction. 147

5.2 Procedure and Summary of the Findings. 147

5.3 Discussion. 153

5.4 Pedagogical Implications. 158

5.4.1 Implication for EFL Teachers. 158

5.4.2 Implication for EFL Learners. 160

5.4.3 Implications for EFL Syllabus Designers, Curriculum Developers and Material Producers. 161

5.5. Suggestions for Further Research. 162

REFERENCES. 164

APPENDICES. 184

     

 

 

 

 

 

 

LISTS OF TABLES

 

Table 3.1:  Reliability Index of SILL and Its Subcomponents ……………………….….…….…87

Table 3.2:  Reliability Index of PLSP and Its Subcomponents ……………………..…….……….90

Table 3.3: Subcomponents and Items of the Persian Creativity Test …………………..…………..93

Table 3.4: Reliability Index of Creativity Questionnaire………………………………………….94

Table 4.1: Descriptive Statistics of SILL………………………………..………………..….……102

Table 4.2: Descriptive Statistics of PLSP……………………………………………………….104

Table 4.3: Descriptive Statistics of ACT……………………………………………………….105

Table 4.4: Correlations between Language Learning Strategies, Learning Style Preferences

and Creativity..………………………………………………………………………110

Table 4.5: Correlations between Subcomponents of Language Learning Strategies and Learning

Styles Preferences……………………………………………………………………114

Table 4.6: Correlation between EFL Learners’ Language Learning Strategies and Creativity…117

Table 4.7: Correlations between EFL Learners’ learning Style Preferences.and Creativity…… 121

Table 4.8: Model Summary; Regression Analysis Predicting Creativity by Using Components                              of Learning Style Preferences and Language Learning Strategies…………….……125

Table 4.9: ANOVA Test of Significance of Regression Model Predicting Creativity by Using

Subcomponents of Learning Style and Strategies……………………….…………..127

Table 4.10: Model Summary, Regression Analysis Predicting Learning Strategy by Using Sub- components of Learning Style Preferences ………………………………………….129

Table 4.11: ANOVA Test of Significance of Regression Model Predicting Learning Strategy by Using the Subcomponents of Learning Style Preferences………………………….130

Table 4.12: Excluded Variables of Learning Style Preferences………………………………..130

Table 4.13: Model Summary; Regression Analysis Predicting Creativity by Using Components

of Language Learning Strategies………………………………….……………….133

Table 4.14: ANOVA Test of Significance of Regression Model Predicting Creativity by Using

Components of Language Learning Strategies…………………………………….134

Table 4.15: Model Summary; Regression Analysis Predicting Creativity by Using Components

of Learning Style Preferences……………………………………………………..136

Table 4.16: ANOVA Test of Significance of Regression Model; Predicting Creativity by Using

Components of Learning Style Preferences………………………………………..137

Table 4.17: Sampling Adequacy and Sphericity Assumptions………………..………………..139

Table 4.18: Total Variance Explained……………………………………………………….…140

Table 4.19: Rotated Components Matrix…………………………………………….…..….….141

Table 4.20:  Summary of the Findings ………………………………………………………….143

 

 

 

LISTS OF FIGURES

 

Figure 4.1: Scatter Plot of Testing Linearity Assumption of Language Learning Strategies and

Learning Style Preferences………………………..………………………………..106

Figure 4.2: Scatter Plot of Testing Linearity Assumption of Language Learning Strategy and

Creativity……………………………………………………………………..…….107

Figure 4.3: Scatter Plot of Testing Linearity Assumption of Learning Style Preferences and

Creativity………………………………………………………………..………….107

Figure 4.4: Scatter Plot of Studentized Residuals for Creativity…………………….………….109

Figure 4.5: Scatter Plot of Testing Linearity Assumption of Language Learning Strategies,

Learning Style Preferences and Creativity…………………………………….…..112

Figure 4.6: Linearity Assumption of EFL Learners’ Language Learning Strategies and

Creativity……………………………………………………………………………..118

Figure 4.7: Scatter Plot of Testing Linearity Assumption of EFL Learners’ Learning Style

Preferences and Creativity………………………………………………..………….123

Figure 4.8: Scatter Plot of Predicting Creativity by Using Components of Language Learning

Strategies and Learning Style Preferences……………………………………………128

Figure 4.9: Scatter Plot of Testing Assumptions of Linearity and Homoscedasticity………….131

Figure 4.10: Scatter plot of Predicting Creativity by Using Components of Language Learning

Strategies………………………………………………………………………….135

Figure 4.11: Scatter plot of Predicting Creativity by Using Components of Learning Style

Preferences………………………………………………………………………..138

 

LISTS OF ABBREVIATIONS

 

 

L1: Native Language

L2: Foreign Language

ESL: English as a Second Language

EFL: English as a Foreign Language

CR: Creativity

PLSP: Perceptual Learning Style Preference

SILL: Strategy Inventory for Language Learning

ACT: Abedi-Schumacher Creativity Test

 

 

 

CHAPTER I

 

 

 

BACKGROUND AND PURPOSE

 

 

 

1.1  Introduction

 

Today, it is almost known that each learner has his/her especial way of learning that may have a fundamental role in his/her success or failure (Fewell, 2010; Zare & Noordin, 2011). Over the recent decades most of the researchers have gradually moved from focusing on teaching paradigms toward exploring individual characteristics (Carson & Longhini, 2002; Oxford & Anderson, 1995). Therefore, the individuals and their differences have been the subject of many studies. Along these lines it seems that there is a highly demanding need to expand studies in these lines (Ghonsooly, Elahi, & Golparvar, 2012; Gilakjani & Ahmadi, 2011; Mohebi & Khodadady, 2011). As Grenbell and Harris (1999) state “methodology alone can never be a solution to language learning. Rather it is an aid and suggestion” (p.10). Most of the theories of learning are all attempts to describe universal human traits in learning (Brown, 2007). They seek to explain globally how people perceive, filter, store, and recall information. Such processes do not account for the differences across individuals in the way they learn, or for differences within any one individual (Brown, 2007) which are very important factors in the process of learning.

Among different personal traits, individual learners’ learning style preferences provide valuable insights into the educational context (Felder & Spurlin, 2005; Sternberg, 1990; Xu, 2011).  Learning style is inherent and pervasive and is a blend of cognitive, affective, and behavioral elements (Willing, 1988). Learning style includes four aspects of a person: a) preferred or habitual patterns of mental functioning; b) patterns of attitudes and interests that affect what an individual will pay most attention to in a learning situation; c) a tendency to seek situations compatible with one’s own learning patterns; and d) a tendency to use certain learning strategies and avoid others (Brown, 2000).

Keefe (as cited in Brown, 2000) stated that learning styles might be thought of as “cognitive, affective, and physiological traits that are relatively stable indicators of how learners perceive, interact with, and respond to the learning environment” (p. 114).

Dyer (1995) noted that each preferred learning style has a matching preferred method of instruction. When mismatches exist between learning styles of the learners in a class and the teaching style of the teacher, the students may become bored and inattentive in class, do poorly on tests, get discouraged about the courses, the curriculum, and themselves, and in some cases change to other curricula or drop out of school (Felder, 1996). Therefore, identifying these learning styles, which are stated by Cornett (1983) as the overall patterns that give general direction to learning behavior, might be a key element to raise instructors’ awareness of their weaknesses and strengths and impede negative feedbacks. Accordingly, Reid (1995) states that developing an understanding of learning environments and styles “will enable students to take control of their learning and to maximize their potential for learning” (p. 25).

Also, Brown (2007) believes that every individual approaches a problem or learns a set of facts from a unique perspective. In this view, the learner is considered as an active participant that the effects of teaching will be partly dependant on what s/he knows such as his/her prior knowledge, what s/he thinks about during learning and his/her active cognitive processes (Weinstein & Underwood, 1985). This has brought attention to language learning strategies which an individual learner applies during the learning process to facilitate second language learning (Oxford, 1990; Wenden, 1991).

Learning strategies are “any set of operations, plans, or routines used by learners to facilitate the obtaining, retrieval, storage and use of information” (Macaro, 2006, p. 342).

Many scholars such as Eliss (1994); O’Malley and Chamot (1996); Oxford (1990); Rubin (1978); Stern (1992) have classified learning strategies into categories, but Oxford’s classification is popular (Eliss, 2008). Her taxonomy consists of direct and indirect strategies. Direct strategies are specific procedures that learners can use to improve their language skills. Indirect strategies, on the other hand, include things such as evaluating one’s learning and cooperating with others (Elis, 2008). Furthermore, the frequency use of strategies and particular types of strategies vary among EFL learners. In this respect the influential effect of learning style should also be considered as suggested by Carson & Longhini, (2002); and Littlemore, (2001).

Researchers such as Ehrman (1989) and Oxford (1995) suggest that learning style has a significant influence on students’ choice of learning strategies, and that both styles and strategies affect learning outcomes. But in spite of the diversity of researches on learning styles and strategies, relatively no studies have addressed the relationship between these two variables and another very influential factor in foreign language learning process called creativity (CR).

Humans are all born with a potential for creativity and creativity can be nurtured “at all stages and in all fields of human endeavor” (Sarsani, 2005, p. 47). To this end, according to Agarwal (1992), developing CR at all levels in the education system is increasingly recognized as being critical in improving educational attainment and life skills, particularly in second or foreign language learning and teaching.  “Discussion of creativity in relation to language teaching and learning has been extensive and continues to be a very major point of application of a wide range of theories of creativity” (Carter, 2004, p. 213). In fact, “Creativity is an inherent aspect of all pedagogical tasks” (Mishan, 2005, p. 83).

The field of creativity as it is known today has been developed basically thanks to the outstanding attempts made by Guilford and Torrance (Sternberg, 2009). In the modern world, creativity is fundamentally important in all aspects of life and since creativity is complex in nature different viewpoints have been put forward to explain the concept emphasizing different aspects of it (Sarsani, 2006).

This study was an ex post facto descriptive attempt to investigate the relationship between EFL learners’ use of reading strategies and comprehension of expository and argumentative text across different proficiency levels. In order to fulfill the purpose of this study, 120 female EFL learners aged within the range of 14 to 30 years participated in the study. The sample was selected from one of the branches of ILI language school. As proficiency levels were considered as a variable in this study, each level namely beginner, intermediate, and advanced levels included 44, 51, and 25 participants. Students were assigned to each level through the International Language Institute’s (ILI) placement test. In the first session, a Persian version of Strategy Inventory for Language Learning (SILL) questionnaire was administered to students. The SILL is the most widely used instrument for identifying reading strategies and in was created by Oxford (1990). In the second session, the participants took the reading tests. Each subject was assigned a test booklet which contained four reading passages (two expository and two argumentative passages). The Flesch Reading Ease formula was used in order to determine the suitable level of texts. Flesch Reading Ease Formula is considered one of the oldest and most accurate readability formulas. Finally, Pearson correlation and multiple regression analyses were used to analyze the data. The results of this research revealed that, there is a significant relationship between EFL learners’ use of reading strategies and their comprehension of expository and argumentative texts across different proficiency levels. Also it was shown in the data analysis that EFL learners’ use of reading strategy was a significant predictor of their comprehension of expository and argumentative texts.

 

 

 

 

                                                            Table of Contents

 

Acknowledgment…………………………………………………………………………………iii

Abstract……………………………………………………………………………………………iv

List of Contents……………………………………………………………………………………v

List of Tables……………………………………………………………………………….…….ix

List of Figures………………………………………………………………………………….…xii

CHAPTER I: Background and Purpose

   1.1 Introduction……………………………………………………………………..……………2

1.2 Statement of the Problem ………………………………………………………..…………5

1.3 Statement of the Research Questions……………………………………………..…………8

1.4 Statement of the Research Hypotheses……………………………………………………10

1.5 Definition of Key Terms…………………………………………………………………..12

1.5.1 Argumentative text …………………………………………………………………..12

1.5.2 Expository text ………………………………………………………………………12

1.5.3 Proficiency level ……………………………………………………………………………………………13

1.5.4 Reading strategy………………………………………………………………….…..13

This study was an ex post facto descriptive attempt to investigate the relationship between EFL learners’ use of reading strategies and comprehension of expository and argumentative text across different proficiency levels. In order to fulfill the purpose of this study, 120 female EFL learners aged within the range of 14 to 30 years participated in the study. The sample was selected from one of the branches of ILI language school. As proficiency levels were considered as a variable in this study, each level namely beginner, intermediate, and advanced levels included 44, 51, and 25 participants. Students were assigned to each level through the International Language Institute’s (ILI) placement test. In the first session, a Persian version of Strategy Inventory for Language Learning (SILL) questionnaire was administered to students. The SILL is the most widely used instrument for identifying reading strategies and in was created by Oxford (1990). In the second session, the participants took the reading tests. Each subject was assigned a test booklet which contained four reading passages (two expository and two argumentative passages). The Flesch Reading Ease formula was used in order to determine the suitable level of texts. Flesch Reading Ease Formula is considered one of the oldest and most accurate readability formulas. Finally, Pearson correlation and multiple regression analyses were used to analyze the data. The results of this research revealed that, there is a significant relationship between EFL learners’ use of reading strategies and their comprehension of expository and argumentative texts across different proficiency levels. Also it was shown in the data analysis that EFL learners’ use of reading strategy was a significant predictor of their comprehension of expository and argumentative texts.

 

 

 

 

                                                            Table of Contents

 

Acknowledgment…………………………………………………………………………………iii

Abstract……………………………………………………………………………………………iv

List of Contents……………………………………………………………………………………v

List of Tables……………………………………………………………………………….…….ix

List of Figures………………………………………………………………………………….…xii

CHAPTER I: Background and Purpose

   1.1 Introduction……………………………………………………………………..……………2

1.2 Statement of the Problem ………………………………………………………..…………5

1.3 Statement of the Research Questions……………………………………………..…………8

1.4 Statement of the Research Hypotheses……………………………………………………10

1.5 Definition of Key Terms…………………………………………………………………..12

1.5.1 Argumentative text …………………………………………………………………..12

1.5.2 Expository text ………………………………………………………………………12

1.5.3 Proficiency level ……………………………………………………………………………………………13

1.5.4 Reading strategy………………………………………………………………….…..13

 

    1.6 Significance of the Study………………………………………………………………….14

    1.7 Limitations, Delimitations, and Assumption ……………………………………………..16

 

CHAPTER II: Review of the Related Literature

2.1 What is reading?……………………………………………………………………………………………………19

2.1.1 Importance of reading …………………………………….……………………..……22

2.1.2 Approaches to reading skill ……………………………………………..……………25

2.1.3 Reading comprehension theories ……………………………………………………..26

2.1.3.1 Schema Theory …………………………………………………………………27

2.1.3.2. Sub skills View of Reading ……………………………………………………28

 

2.1.4 Different Kinds of Reading …………………………………………………………..31

2.1.5 Teaching and Learning Reading ……………………………………………………..34

 

2.1.6 Strategy ………………………………………………………………………………36

 

2.1.6.1 Learning Strategy ……………………………………………………………..39

2.1.6.2 Reading Strategies …………………………..…………………………………39

2.1.6.2.1 Extensive and Intensive Reading Strategies ……………..……………46

2.1.6.2.2 Cognitive Strategies ……………………………………………………47

2.1.6.2.3 Metacognitive Strategies ………………………………………………49

2.1.6.2.4 Compensation Strategies ………………………………………………50

2.1.6.2.5 Scanning and Skimming Reading Strategies ………………………….51

2.1.7 L1/L2 Reading Strategies ………………..…………………………………………..55

2.1.8. Learner Strategy Training ……………………………………………………………58

2.2 Text ……………….……………………………………………………………………….59

2.2.1 Text comprehension ……………………………………………………………………60

2.2.2 Text type ……………..………………………………………………………………..62

2.2.2.1 Expository text ……….…………………………………………………………68

2.2.2.2 Students with Learning Disabilities and Expository Text ………………………70

2.2.2.3 Argumentative text …………………….………………………………………..73

2.2.3 Connectives, text types, and reading comprehension ………..………………………..76

2.2.4 Two Approaches to Text Type Analysis ……..……………………………………….77

2.2.5 Genre and Text Type ………………………………………………………………….79

CHAPTER III: Method

3.1 Introduction …………………………………………………………………………………86

3.2 Participants …………………………………………………………..…………………….88

3.3 Instrumentation …………………………………………………………………………….88

3.3.1 Test of Reading Comprehension …….……………………………………..………….88

3.3.2 Reading strategies questionnaire ……………………………………………………….91

3.4 Procedure …………………..………………………………………………………………91

3.5 Design …………….……………………………………………………………………….93

3.6 Statistical Analysis ………………..……………………………………………………….94

CHAPTER IV: Research and Discussion

4.1 Introduction ………………………………………………………………………………..96

4.2 Restatement of the Research Hypotheses …………………….……………………………96

4.3 Reliability Analysis ………………………………………………………………………..98

4.4 Descriptive Statistics of the SILL Questionnaire ………………………………………….99

4.5 Descriptive Statistics of the Reading Comprehension Tests ……………….…………….101

4.6 Testing the Hypotheses of the Study ……………………………….…………………….107

4.7 Discussion of the Findings ………………..………………………………………………124

CHAPTER V: Conclusion and Pedagogical Implications

5.1 Introduction ……………………………………………………………………………….130

5.2 Procedures and Summery of the Findings ….…………………………………………….130

5.3 Pedagogical Implications ………………………………………………………………….131

5.4 Suggestions for Further Research ……………………………….………………………..133

References………………………………………………………………………………………134

Appendices

Appendix A …………………….…………………………………………………………….153

Appendix B …………………….……………………………………………………………..158

Appendix C …………..……………………………………………………………………….160

Appendix D ………..…………………………………………………………………………162

Appendix E ………….………………………………………………………………………..164

Appendix F ……………..…………………………………………………………………….166

Appendix G ……………………………………..……………………………………………167

Appendix H …………………..………………………………………………………………169

Appendix I …………………………………………………………………………………….171

Appendix J ……………………………………………………………………………………173

Appendix K ……………………………………………..……………………………………175

Appendix L …………..……………………………………………………………………….177

Appendix M …………………………………………………………………………………..179

 

 

 

 

Lists of Tables

Table 2.1 Genres and Text Types ………………..…………………………………………….182

Table 3.1 Readability Statistics of the Texts Selected for Beginners …………………….……183

Table 3.2 Readability Statistics of the Texts Selected for Intermediates ………….…………..184

Table 3.3 Readability Statistics of the Texts Selected for Advanced …………….……………185

Table 3.4 The Variables of the Study …………………………………………………………..186

Table 4.1 Reliability statistics of the reading comprehension test for beginner learners ………187

Table 4.2 Reliability statistics of the reading comprehension test for intermediate learners ….188

Table 4.3 Reliability statistics of the reading comprehension test for advance learners ……….189

Table 4.4 Descriptive statistics of the obtained scores on reading strategy use questionnaire…190

Table 4.5 Normality checks of SILL scores distributions ……………………………………..191

Table 4.6 Descriptive Statistics of the Obtained Scores on expository text comprehension tests …192

Table 4.7 Normality checks of Expository test scores distributions ………………..………….193

Table 4.8 Descriptive Statistics of the Obtained Scores on argumentative text comprehension  tests ……………………………………………………………………………………….194

Table 4.9 Normality checks of Argumentative test scores distributions ………………………195

Table 4.10 Correlation between reading strategies and expository text comprehension ……….196

Table 4.11 Correlation between beginner learners’ use of reading strategies and expository text    comprehension ……………………………………………………………………………..197

Table 4.12 Correlation between intermediate learners’ use of reading strategies and expository text comprehension ………………………………………………………………………..198

Table 4.13 Correlation between advanced learners’ use of reading strategies and expository text comprehension …………………………………………………………………………….199

Table 4.14 Correlation between reading strategies and argumentative text comprehension …..200

Table 4.15 Correlation between beginner learners’ use of reading strategies and argumentative text comprehension ………………………….…………………………………………….201

Table 4.16 Correlation between intermediate learners’ use of reading strategies an argumentative text comprehension ………………………….…………………………………………….202

Table 4.17 Correlation between advanced learners’ use of reading strategies and argumentative text comprehension …………………………………………………….………………….203

Table 4.18 Model Summary ……………….…………………………………………………..204

Table 4.19 ANOVA of regression model ………..…………………………………………….205

Table 4.20 Model Summary ………………………….………………………………………..206

Table 4.21 ANOVA of regression model ………………………………………………………207

Table 4.22 Model Summary …………………………………………………………..……….208

Table 4.23 ANOVA of regression model ……………………………..……………………….209

Table 4.24 Model Summary ……………………………………………………………………210

Table 4.25 ANOVA of regression model ………………………………………………………211

Table 4.26 Model Summary …………………….……………………………………………..212

Table 4.27 ANOVA of regression model ………………………………………………………213

Table 4.28 Model Summary ……………………………………………………………………214

Table 4.29 ANOVA of regression model ……………………………..……………………….215

Table 4.30 Model Summary ……………………………………………………………………216

Table 4.31 ANOVA of regression model ………………………………………………………217

Table 4.32 Model Summary ……………………………………………………………………218

Table 4.33 ANOVA of regression model ………………………………………………………219

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Lists of Figures

Figure 4.1 Distribution of Beginners’ SILL Scores ………..…………………………………..221

Figure 4.2 Distribution of Intermediates’ SILL Scores …………..……………………………222

Figure 4.3 Distribution of Advances’ SILL Scores …………………..………………………..223

Figure 4.4 Distribution of Beginners’ Expository Test Scores …………….…………………..224

Figure 4.5 Distribution of Intermediates’ Expository Test Scores ………………….…………225

Figure 4.6 Distribution of Advances’ Expository Test Scores ………………….……………..226

Figure 4.7 Distribution of Beginners’ Argumentative Test Scores ……………………..……..227

Figure 4.8 Distribution of Intermediates’ Argumentative Test Scores ………….……………..228

Figure 4.9 Distribution of Advances’ Argumentative Test Scores …………………………….229

 

 

 

 

CHAPTER I

                 

   Background and Purpose

                        

 

 

 

1.1 Introduction

Language-teaching methodology has seen a dramatic increase in attention to the strategies investment that learners can make in their own learning process. The learning of any skill involves a certain degree of investment of one’s time and effort. According to brown (2001) A language is probably the most complex set of skills one would ever seek to acquire; therefore, an investment of strategies is necessary in the form of developing multiple layers of strategies for getting that language in to one’s brain.

Reading is a fundamental skill for English foreign/second language (EFL/ESL) learners (Anderson, 2003). Rivers (1981) considers reading as the most significant activity in language classrooms since it acts not only as a source of information and a pleasurable activity, but also as a means of consolidating and extending one’s knowledge of the language. According to Anderson (2003), it is an essential skill for learners of English and for most of learners it is the most important skill to master in order to ensure success in learning. With strengthened reading skill, learners of English tend to make progress in other areas of language learning.

In the last two decades, attention has been paid to understanding what proficient readers typically do while reading, including identifying the strategies they use and how and under what conditions they use those strategies. This line of research has been useful in instructing non-proficient first and second-language readers to increase their awareness and use of reading strategies to improve comprehension (Sheorey & Mokhtari, 2001). For successful reading, students are required to understand the meaning of text, critically evaluate the message, remember the content and apply the new-found knowledge flexibly (Pressley, 2000). In order to reach these objectives, proficient readers use a variety of strategies before, during and after the reading of a text in order to comprehend the text and prevent any problem which may occur during this process. In other words, strategies are considered as the most beneficial tools any reader can use for controlling progress of and for ensuring success in reading. Applying strategic behavior in reading requires that readers intentionally engage in planned actions under their control (Alexander, Graham & Harris, 1998).

Beside the importance of reading strategies, text comprehension is also crucial. Text comprehension is an interactive process in which linguistic elements in a discourse or text interact with each other to create the “texture” of a text (Halliday & Hassan, 1976, de Beaugrande & Dressler, 1981). The second level of interactions is between bottom-up and top-down processing of texts take place in the readers’ minds, or between linguistic knowledge and world knowledge (Eskey, 1988, Grabe & Stoller, 2002). The third level of interaction is an interpretive one between the reader and a text, or between the reader and the writer through a text (Nuttal, 1996, Ozono and Ito, 2003). Lipson and Wixon (1986), among others, claim that research on reading ability as well as reading disability should adopt an interactive view. Such a view takes into account the dynamic process of reading in which the reader, text, process, and the setting conditions of the reading situation interact in an active and flexible manner. This claim should be extended to reading in a foreign language as well. In fact, to understand how foreign language learners comprehend texts, many researchers have emphasized the need to study the differential contribution of text-based characteristics such as genre, text structure parameters, and textual markers (Geva, 1992; Camiciottoli. 2003; Carrel, 1985).

In addition, the readers’ ability to comprehend a text may vary as a function of the text type (Schneuwly, 1997; Alverman, et al., 1995). According to Neubert (1985) text types motivate particular frames and act out certain scenarios. They recast the linguistic material available in the system of a language into socially efficient, effective and appropriate moulds. He believes that texts are various instances clustering around a holistic experience that has been shared over time. This ‘prolonged interactive experience’ takes the shape of prototypical encounters and this empirical prototypicality is then translated into the concept of the prototype text. Other scholars have come up with their own text typologies. More specifically, Werlich (1976) distinguishes between five text types: description, narration, argumentation, instruction,

 

 

    1.6 Significance of the Study………………………………………………………………….14

    1.7 Limitations, Delimitations, and Assumption ……………………………………………..16

 

CHAPTER II: Review of the Related Literature

2.1 What is reading?……………………………………………………………………………………………………19

2.1.1 Importance of reading …………………………………….……………………..……22

2.1.2 Approaches to reading skill ……………………………………………..……………25

2.1.3 Reading comprehension theories ……………………………………………………..26

2.1.3.1 Schema Theory …………………………………………………………………27

2.1.3.2. Sub skills View of Reading ……………………………………………………28

 

2.1.4 Different Kinds of Reading …………………………………………………………..31

2.1.5 Teaching and Learning Reading ……………………………………………………..34

 

2.1.6 Strategy ………………………………………………………………………………36

 

2.1.6.1 Learning Strategy ……………………………………………………………..39

2.1.6.2 Reading Strategies …………………………..…………………………………39

2.1.6.2.1 Extensive and Intensive Reading Strategies ……………..……………46

2.1.6.2.2 Cognitive Strategies ……………………………………………………47

2.1.6.2.3 Metacognitive Strategies ………………………………………………49

2.1.6.2.4 Compensation Strategies ………………………………………………50

2.1.6.2.5 Scanning and Skimming Reading Strategies ………………………….51

2.1.7 L1/L2 Reading Strategies ………………..…………………………………………..55

2.1.8. Learner Strategy Training ……………………………………………………………58

2.2 Text ……………….……………………………………………………………………….59

2.2.1 Text comprehension ……………………………………………………………………60

این مطلب را هم بخوانید :

2.2.2 Text type ……………..………………………………………………………………..62

2.2.2.1 Expository text ……….…………………………………………………………68

2.2.2.2 Students with Learning Disabilities and Expository Text ………………………70

2.2.2.3 Argumentative text …………………….………………………………………..73

2.2.3 Connectives, text types, and reading comprehension ………..………………………..76

2.2.4 Two Approaches to Text Type Analysis ……..……………………………………….77

2.2.5 Genre and Text Type ………………………………………………………………….79

CHAPTER III: Method

3.1 Introduction …………………………………………………………………………………86

3.2 Participants …………………………………………………………..…………………….88

3.3 Instrumentation …………………………………………………………………………….88

3.3.1 Test of Reading Comprehension …….……………………………………..………….88

3.3.2 Reading strategies questionnaire ……………………………………………………….91

3.4 Procedure …………………..………………………………………………………………91

3.5 Design …………….……………………………………………………………………….93

3.6 Statistical Analysis ………………..……………………………………………………….94

CHAPTER IV: Research and Discussion

4.1 Introduction ………………………………………………………………………………..96

4.2 Restatement of the Research Hypotheses …………………….……………………………96

4.3 Reliability Analysis ………………………………………………………………………..98

4.4 Descriptive Statistics of the SILL Questionnaire ………………………………………….99

4.5 Descriptive Statistics of the Reading Comprehension Tests ……………….…………….101

4.6 Testing the Hypotheses of the Study ……………………………….…………………….107

4.7 Discussion of the Findings ………………..………………………………………………124

CHAPTER V: Conclusion and Pedagogical Implications

5.1 Introduction ……………………………………………………………………………….130

5.2 Procedures and Summery of the Findings ….…………………………………………….130

5.3 Pedagogical Implications ………………………………………………………………….131

5.4 Suggestions for Further Research ……………………………….………………………..133

References………………………………………………………………………………………134

Appendices

Appendix A …………………….…………………………………………………………….153

Appendix B …………………….……………………………………………………………..158

Appendix C …………..……………………………………………………………………….160

Appendix D ………..…………………………………………………………………………162

Appendix E ………….………………………………………………………………………..164

Appendix F ……………..…………………………………………………………………….166

Appendix G ……………………………………..……………………………………………167

Appendix H …………………..………………………………………………………………169

Appendix I …………………………………………………………………………………….171

Appendix J ……………………………………………………………………………………173

Appendix K ……………………………………………..……………………………………175

Appendix L …………..……………………………………………………………………….177

Appendix M …………………………………………………………………………………..179

 

 

 

 

Lists of Tables

Table 2.1 Genres and Text Types ………………..…………………………………………….182

Table 3.1 Readability Statistics of the Texts Selected for Beginners …………………….……183

Table 3.2 Readability Statistics of the Texts Selected for Intermediates ………….…………..184

Table 3.3 Readability Statistics of the Texts Selected for Advanced …………….……………185

Table 3.4 The Variables of the Study …………………………………………………………..186

Table 4.1 Reliability statistics of the reading comprehension test for beginner learners ………187

Table 4.2 Reliability statistics of the reading comprehension test for intermediate learners ….188

Table 4.3 Reliability statistics of the reading comprehension test for advance learners ……….189

Table 4.4 Descriptive statistics of the obtained scores on reading strategy use questionnaire…190

Table 4.5 Normality checks of SILL scores distributions ……………………………………..191

Table 4.6 Descriptive Statistics of the Obtained Scores on expository text comprehension tests …192

Table 4.7 Normality checks of Expository test scores distributions ………………..………….193

Table 4.8 Descriptive Statistics of the Obtained Scores on argumentative text comprehension  tests ……………………………………………………………………………………….194

Table 4.9 Normality checks of Argumentative test scores distributions ………………………195

Table 4.10 Correlation between reading strategies and expository text comprehension ……….196

Table 4.11 Correlation between beginner learners’ use of reading strategies and expository text    comprehension ……………………………………………………………………………..197

Table 4.12 Correlation between intermediate learners’ use of reading strategies and expository text comprehension ………………………………………………………………………..198

Table 4.13 Correlation between advanced learners’ use of reading strategies and expository text comprehension …………………………………………………………………………….199

Table 4.14 Correlation between reading strategies and argumentative text comprehension …..200

Table 4.15 Correlation between beginner learners’ use of reading strategies and argumentative text comprehension ………………………….…………………………………………….201

Table 4.16 Correlation between intermediate learners’ use of reading strategies an argumentative text comprehension ………………………….…………………………………………….202

Table 4.17 Correlation between advanced learners’ use of reading strategies and argumentative text comprehension …………………………………………………….………………….203

Table 4.18 Model Summary ……………….…………………………………………………..204

Table 4.19 ANOVA of regression model ………..…………………………………………….205

Table 4.20 Model Summary ………………………….………………………………………..206

Table 4.21 ANOVA of regression model ………………………………………………………207

Table 4.22 Model Summary …………………………………………………………..……….208

Table 4.23 ANOVA of regression model ……………………………..……………………….209

Table 4.24 Model Summary ……………………………………………………………………210

Table 4.25 ANOVA of regression model ………………………………………………………211

Table 4.26 Model Summary …………………….……………………………………………..212

Table 4.27 ANOVA of regression model ………………………………………………………213

Table 4.28 Model Summary ……………………………………………………………………214

Table 4.29 ANOVA of regression model ……………………………..……………………….215

Table 4.30 Model Summary ……………………………………………………………………216

Table 4.31 ANOVA of regression model ………………………………………………………217

Table 4.32 Model Summary ……………………………………………………………………218

Table 4.33 ANOVA of regression model ………………………………………………………219

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Lists of Figures

Figure 4.1 Distribution of Beginners’ SILL Scores ………..…………………………………..221

Figure 4.2 Distribution of Intermediates’ SILL Scores …………..……………………………222

Figure 4.3 Distribution of Advances’ SILL Scores …………………..………………………..223

Figure 4.4 Distribution of Beginners’ Expository Test Scores …………….…………………..224

Figure 4.5 Distribution of Intermediates’ Expository Test Scores ………………….…………225

Figure 4.6 Distribution of Advances’ Expository Test Scores ………………….……………..226

Figure 4.7 Distribution of Beginners’ Argumentative Test Scores ……………………..……..227

Figure 4.8 Distribution of Intermediates’ Argumentative Test Scores ………….……………..228

Figure 4.9 Distribution of Advances’ Argumentative Test Scores …………………………….229

 

 

 

 

CHAPTER I

                 

   Background and Purpose

                        

 

 

 

1.1 Introduction

Language-teaching methodology has seen a dramatic increase in attention to the strategies investment that learners can make in their own learning process. The learning of any skill involves a certain degree of investment of one’s time and effort. According to brown (2001) A language is probably the most complex set of skills one would ever seek to acquire; therefore, an investment of strategies is necessary in the form of developing multiple layers of strategies for getting that language in to one’s brain.

Reading is a fundamental skill for English foreign/second language (EFL/ESL) learners (Anderson, 2003). Rivers (1981) considers reading as the most significant activity in language classrooms since it acts not only as a source of information and a pleasurable activity, but also as a means of consolidating and extending one’s knowledge of the language. According to Anderson (2003), it is an essential skill for learners of English and for most of learners it is the most important skill to master in order to ensure success in learning. With strengthened reading skill, learners of English tend to make progress in other areas of language learning.

In the last two decades, attention has been paid to understanding what proficient readers typically do while reading, including identifying the strategies they use and how and under what conditions they use those strategies. This line of research has been useful in instructing non-proficient first and second-language readers to increase their awareness and use of reading strategies to improve comprehension (Sheorey & Mokhtari, 2001). For successful reading, students are required to understand the meaning of text, critically evaluate the message, remember the content and apply the new-found knowledge flexibly (Pressley, 2000). In order to reach these objectives, proficient readers use a variety of strategies before, during and after the reading of a text in order to comprehend the text and prevent any problem which may occur during this process. In other words, strategies are considered as the most beneficial tools any reader can use for controlling progress of and for ensuring success in reading. Applying strategic behavior in reading requires that readers intentionally engage in planned actions under their control (Alexander, Graham & Harris, 1998).

Beside the importance of reading strategies, text comprehension is also crucial. Text comprehension is an interactive process in which linguistic elements in a discourse or text interact with each other to create the “texture” of a text (Halliday & Hassan, 1976, de Beaugrande & Dressler, 1981). The second level of interactions is between bottom-up and top-down processing of texts take place in the readers’ minds, or between linguistic knowledge and world knowledge (Eskey, 1988, Grabe & Stoller, 2002). The third level of interaction is an interpretive one between the reader and a text, or between the reader and the writer through a text (Nuttal, 1996, Ozono and Ito, 2003). Lipson and Wixon (1986), among others, claim that research on reading ability as well as reading disability should adopt an interactive view. Such a view takes into account the dynamic process of reading in which the reader, text, process, and the setting conditions of the reading situation interact in an active and flexible manner. This claim should be extended to reading in a foreign language as well. In fact, to understand how foreign language learners comprehend texts, many researchers have emphasized the need to study the differential contribution of text-based characteristics such as genre, text structure parameters, and textual markers (Geva, 1992; Camiciottoli. 2003; Carrel, 1985).

In addition, the readers’ ability to comprehend a text may vary as a function of the text type (Schneuwly, 1997; Alverman, et al., 1995). According to Neubert (1985) text types motivate particular frames and act out certain scenarios. They recast the linguistic material available in the system of a language into socially efficient, effective and appropriate moulds. He believes that texts are various instances clustering around a holistic experience that has been shared over time. This ‘prolonged interactive experience’ takes the shape of prototypical encounters and this empirical prototypicality is then translated into the concept of the prototype text. Other scholars have come up with their own text typologies. More specifically, Werlich (1976) distinguishes between five text types: description, narration, argumentation, instruction,

2ـ7 نیترات در آب آشامیدنی.. 13

2ـ8 عوامل موثر در مقدار نیترات گیاهان. 13

2ـ9 نیترات در آب آشامیدنی و تاثیرآن بر سلامت انسان. 15

2ـ10 نیترات و سازمان جهانی بهداشت… 15

2ـ11 مزایای نیترات و نیتریت… 16

2ـ12 استاندارد‌های مرتبط با نیترات و نیتریت در ایران. 17

2ـ13 اسید آسکوربیک… 17

2ـ13ـ1 ساختمان شیمیایی.. 18

2ـ13ـ2 نقش اسید آسکوربیک… 18

2ـ13ـ3 منابع ویتامین.. 19

2ـ13ـ4 میزان نیاز بدن. 19

2ـ14 مروری بر سبزیجات پژوهش حاضر. 20

2ـ14ـ1 کلم. 20

2ـ14ـ2 کلم بروکلی.. 20

2ـ14ـ3 کلم و گواتر. 22

2ـ14ـ4 کلم و نیترات… 22

2ـ14ـ5 قارچ.. 22

2ـ14ـ6 پیازچه. 23

2ـ15 نگاهی بر پژوهش‌های صورت گرفته. 24

فصل سوم: مواد و روش‌ها 28

3-1 مواد شیمیایی.. 29

3-2 تجهیزات مورد استفاده 29

3-3 آماده سازی نمونه‌ها 29

3ـ4 روش اندازه‌گیری میزان نیترات، نیتریت و اسید آسکوربیک… 30

3-4ـ1 اندازه‌گیری میزان نیترات… 30

3ـ4ـ2 آماده سازیِ پودر مخلوط.. 30

3ـ4ـ3 تهیه‌ی محلول‌های استاندارد نیترات پتاسیم. 30

3ـ4ـ4 روش کار. 30

2ـ7 نیترات در آب آشامیدنی.. 13

2ـ8 عوامل موثر در مقدار نیترات گیاهان. 13

2ـ9 نیترات در آب آشامیدنی و تاثیرآن بر سلامت انسان. 15

2ـ10 نیترات و سازمان جهانی بهداشت… 15

2ـ11 مزایای نیترات و نیتریت… 16

2ـ12 استاندارد‌های مرتبط با نیترات و نیتریت در ایران. 17

2ـ13 اسید آسکوربیک… 17

2ـ13ـ1 ساختمان شیمیایی.. 18

2ـ13ـ2 نقش اسید آسکوربیک… 18

2ـ13ـ3 منابع ویتامین.. 19

2ـ13ـ4 میزان نیاز بدن. 19

2ـ14 مروری بر سبزیجات پژوهش حاضر. 20

2ـ14ـ1 کلم. 20

2ـ14ـ2 کلم بروکلی.. 20

2ـ14ـ3 کلم و گواتر. 22

2ـ14ـ4 کلم و نیترات… 22

2ـ14ـ5 قارچ.. 22

2ـ14ـ6 پیازچه. 23

2ـ15 نگاهی بر پژوهش‌های صورت گرفته. 24

فصل سوم: مواد و روش‌ها 28

3-1 مواد شیمیایی.. 29

3-2 تجهیزات مورد استفاده 29

3-3 آماده سازی نمونه‌ها 29

3ـ4 روش اندازه‌گیری میزان نیترات، نیتریت و اسید آسکوربیک… 30

3-4ـ1 اندازه‌گیری میزان نیترات… 30

3ـ4ـ2 آماده سازیِ پودر مخلوط.. 30

3ـ4ـ3 تهیه‌ی محلول‌های استاندارد نیترات پتاسیم. 30

3ـ4ـ4 روش کار. 30

3ـ4ـ5 اندازه‌گیری میزان نیتریت… 31

3ـ4ـ6 آماده سازی پودر مخلوط.. 31

3ـ4ـ7 تهیه محلول‌های استاندارد نیتریت سدیم. 31

3ـ4ـ8 روش کار. 31

3ـ4ـ9 اندازه‌گیری اسیدآسکوربیک… 32

فصل چهارم: نتایج و بحث… 33

4-1 نیتریت… 34

4ـ1ـ1 میزان نیتریت… 34

4ـ1ـ2 تاثیر فرآیند پختن.. 37

4ـ1ـ3 تاثیر  زمان به روی محتوای نیتریت… 38

4-2 نیترات… 39

4ـ2ـ1 میزان نیترات در سبزیجات مورد آزمایش… 39

4ـ2ـ2 تاثیر فرآیند پختن.. 43

4ـ2ـ3 تاثیر گذشت زمان بروی محتوای نیترات… 44

4ـ3 اسید آسکوربیک… 45

4ـ3ـ1 میزان اسید آسکوربیک… 45

4ـ3ـ2 تاثیر پختن بروی محتوای اسید آسکوربیک… 48

4ـ3ـ3 تاثیر زمان. 49

5ـ1 نتیجه گیری کلی.. 51

5ـ2 پیشنهادات… 52

منابع. 53

چکیده انگلیسی.. 61

 

فهرست تصاویر

شکل 2-1: شمای کلی چرخه نیتروژن در تولید نیترات و چگونگی تشکیل مت‌هموگلوبین در خون. 7

فهرست جداول

جدول 3-1- تجهیزات مورد استفاده 29

 فهرست نمودار

نمودار 4-1 میانگین میزان نیتریت در سبزیجات مورد بررسی با توجه به نوع فرایند و زمان نگهداری  34

نمودار 4-2 نشان دهنده میزان نیتریت پیازچه خام وپخته در طول زمان نگهداری.. 35

نمودار 4-3 نشان دهنده میزان نیتریت کلم قرمز خام وپخته در طول زمان نگهداری.. 35

نمودار 4-4 نشان دهنده میزان نیتریت بروکلی خام وپخته در طول زمان نگهداری.. 36

نمودار 4-5 نشان دهنده میزان نیتریت کلم سفید خام وپخته در طول زمان نگهداری.. 36

نمودار 4-6 نشان دهنده میزان نیتریت قارچ خام وپخته در طول زمان نگهداری.. 37

نمودار 4- 7 میانگین میزان نیترات در سبزیجات مورد بررسی با توجه به نوع فرایند و زمان نگهداری  39

نمودار 4-8 نشان دهنده میزان نیترات پیازچه خام و پخته در طول مدت نگهداری.. 41

نمودار 4-9 نشان دهنده میزان نیترات کلم قرمز خام و پخته در طول زمان نگهداری.. 41

نمودار 4-10 نشان دهنده میزان نیترات بروکلی خام و پخته در طول مدت نگهداری.. 42

نمودار 4-11 نشان دهنده میزان نیترات کلم سفید خام و پخته در مدت نگهداری.. 42

نمودار 4-12 نشان دهنده میزان نیترات قارچ خام و پخته در طول زمان نگهداری.. 43

نمودار 4-13 میانگین میزان اسید آسکوربیک در سبزیجات مورد بررسی با توجه به نوع فرایند و زمان نگهداری  45

نمودار 4-14 نشان دهنده میزان اسید آسکوربیک کلم سفید خام و پخته در طول زمان نگهداری.. 46

نمودار 4-15 نشان دهنده میزان اسیدآسکوربیک پیازچه خام وپخته در طول زمان نگهداری.. 46

نمودار 4-16 نشان دهنده میزان اسید آسکوربیک کلم قرمز خام وپخته در طول مدت نگهداری.. 47

نمودار 4-17 نشان دهنده میزان اسید آسکوربیک قارچ خام وپخته در طول زمان نگهداری.. 47

نمودار 4-18 نشان دهنده میزان اسید آسکوربیک بروکلی خام و پخته در طول زمان نگهداری.. 4

چکیده

در پژوهش حاضر، اثر شرایط (آب پز کردن) و زمان نگهداری (٩ روزه) بر محتوای اسید آسکوربیک، نیترات و نیتریتِ ٥ نمونه سبزی (کلم بروکلی، کلم قرمز، کلم سفید، پیازچه و قارچ) مورد ارزیابی قرار گرفت و نتایج حاصله، توسط نرم افزار spss 16.0 تجزیه و تحلیل شدند. نتایج به دست آمده از آنالیز آماری نشان داد که در بین نمونه‌ها، بیشترین مقدار اسید آسکوربیک مربوط به نمونه‌ی قارچ (mg ٢٥) و کمترین آن مربوط به نمونه‌ی پیازچه (mg ١٦) بود. در همه‌ی نمونه‌ها، در اثر پختن و انبارسازی، محتوای اسید آسکوربیک نمونه‌ها کاهش معناداری داشت (p<0.05). بیشترین و کمترین مقدار نیترات، به

 

3ـ4ـ5 اندازه‌گیری میزان نیتریت… 31

3ـ4ـ6 آماده سازی پودر مخلوط.. 31

3ـ4ـ7 تهیه محلول‌های استاندارد نیتریت سدیم. 31

3ـ4ـ8 روش کار. 31

3ـ4ـ9 اندازه‌گیری اسیدآسکوربیک… 32

فصل چهارم: نتایج و بحث… 33

4-1 نیتریت… 34

4ـ1ـ1 میزان نیتریت… 34

4ـ1ـ2 تاثیر فرآیند پختن.. 37

4ـ1ـ3 تاثیر  زمان به روی محتوای نیتریت… 38

4-2 نیترات… 39

4ـ2ـ1 میزان نیترات در سبزیجات مورد آزمایش… 39

4ـ2ـ2 تاثیر فرآیند پختن.. 43

4ـ2ـ3 تاثیر گذشت زمان بروی محتوای نیترات… 44

4ـ3 اسید آسکوربیک… 45

4ـ3ـ1 میزان اسید آسکوربیک… 45

4ـ3ـ2 تاثیر پختن بروی محتوای اسید آسکوربیک… 48

4ـ3ـ3 تاثیر زمان. 49

5ـ1 نتیجه گیری کلی.. 51

5ـ2 پیشنهادات… 52

منابع. 53

چکیده انگلیسی.. 61

 

فهرست تصاویر

شکل 2-1: شمای کلی چرخه نیتروژن در تولید نیترات و چگونگی تشکیل مت‌هموگلوبین در خون. 7

فهرست جداول

جدول 3-1- تجهیزات مورد استفاده 29

 فهرست نمودار

 

این مطلب را هم بخوانید :

نمودار 4-1 میانگین میزان نیتریت در سبزیجات مورد بررسی با توجه به نوع فرایند و زمان نگهداری  34

نمودار 4-2 نشان دهنده میزان نیتریت پیازچه خام وپخته در طول زمان نگهداری.. 35

نمودار 4-3 نشان دهنده میزان نیتریت کلم قرمز خام وپخته در طول زمان نگهداری.. 35

نمودار 4-4 نشان دهنده میزان نیتریت بروکلی خام وپخته در طول زمان نگهداری.. 36

نمودار 4-5 نشان دهنده میزان نیتریت کلم سفید خام وپخته در طول زمان نگهداری.. 36

نمودار 4-6 نشان دهنده میزان نیتریت قارچ خام وپخته در طول زمان نگهداری.. 37

نمودار 4- 7 میانگین میزان نیترات در سبزیجات مورد بررسی با توجه به نوع فرایند و زمان نگهداری  39

نمودار 4-8 نشان دهنده میزان نیترات پیازچه خام و پخته در طول مدت نگهداری.. 41

نمودار 4-9 نشان دهنده میزان نیترات کلم قرمز خام و پخته در طول زمان نگهداری.. 41

نمودار 4-10 نشان دهنده میزان نیترات بروکلی خام و پخته در طول مدت نگهداری.. 42

نمودار 4-11 نشان دهنده میزان نیترات کلم سفید خام و پخته در مدت نگهداری.. 42

نمودار 4-12 نشان دهنده میزان نیترات قارچ خام و پخته در طول زمان نگهداری.. 43

نمودار 4-13 میانگین میزان اسید آسکوربیک در سبزیجات مورد بررسی با توجه به نوع فرایند و زمان نگهداری  45

نمودار 4-14 نشان دهنده میزان اسید آسکوربیک کلم سفید خام و پخته در طول زمان نگهداری.. 46

نمودار 4-15 نشان دهنده میزان اسیدآسکوربیک پیازچه خام وپخته در طول زمان نگهداری.. 46

نمودار 4-16 نشان دهنده میزان اسید آسکوربیک کلم قرمز خام وپخته در طول مدت نگهداری.. 47

نمودار 4-17 نشان دهنده میزان اسید آسکوربیک قارچ خام وپخته در طول زمان نگهداری.. 47

نمودار 4-18 نشان دهنده میزان اسید آسکوربیک بروکلی خام و پخته در طول زمان نگهداری.. 4

چکیده

در پژوهش حاضر، اثر شرایط (آب پز کردن) و زمان نگهداری (٩ روزه) بر محتوای اسید آسکوربیک، نیترات و نیتریتِ ٥ نمونه سبزی (کلم بروکلی، کلم قرمز، کلم سفید، پیازچه و قارچ) مورد ارزیابی قرار گرفت و نتایج حاصله، توسط نرم افزار spss 16.0 تجزیه و تحلیل شدند. نتایج به دست آمده از آنالیز آماری نشان داد که در بین نمونه‌ها، بیشترین مقدار اسید آسکوربیک مربوط به نمونه‌ی قارچ (mg ٢٥) و کمترین آن مربوط به نمونه‌ی پیازچه (mg ١٦) بود. در همه‌ی نمونه‌ها، در اثر پختن و انبارسازی، محتوای اسید آسکوربیک نمونه‌ها کاهش معناداری داشت (p<0.05). بیشترین و کمترین مقدار نیترات، به

 

 

 

 

Lists of Tables

Page	Tables
55	Table 3.1. Reliability of the EI questionnaire
60	Table 4.1. Descriptive statistics for the scores of emotional intelligence test
60	Table 4.2. Descriptive statistics for the scores of reading comprehension test
61	Table 4.3. correlation between EI and reading comprehension (RC) tests in     general
62	Tables 4.4. The correlation between all the questions of EI, one by one, with the total scores of RC
62	Table 4.5. Correlation between 1st  main category of EI and its sub categories and reading comprehension
62	Table 4.6. Correlation between 2nd  main category of EI and its sub categories and reading comprehension
63	Table 4.7. Correlation between 3rd main category of EI and its sub categories and reading comprehension
63	Table 4.8. Correlation between 4th  main category of EI and its sub categories and reading comprehension
63	Table 4.9. Correlation between 5th main category of EI and its sub categories and reading comprehension

 

 

 

Lists of Graphs

Page	Graphs
65	Graph 4.1. It shows the weak relationship between emotional intelligence and reading comprehension
66	Graph (4.2 &3). They show a big difference between the EI and RC `s mean scores
68	Graphs 4.4. The frequency graphs of the participants` answers to the 90 items of EI test

 

 

 

List of Abbreviations

 

 

 

 

 

 

Lists of Tables

Page	Tables
55	Table 3.1. Reliability of the EI questionnaire
60	Table 4.1. Descriptive statistics for the scores of emotional intelligence test
60	Table 4.2. Descriptive statistics for the scores of reading comprehension test
61	Table 4.3. correlation between EI and reading comprehension (RC) tests in     general
62	Tables 4.4. The correlation between all the questions of EI, one by one, with the total scores of RC
62	Table 4.5. Correlation between 1st  main category of EI and its sub categories and reading comprehension
62	Table 4.6. Correlation between 2nd  main category of EI and its sub categories and reading comprehension
63	Table 4.7. Correlation between 3rd main category of EI and its sub categories and reading comprehension
63	Table 4.8. Correlation between 4th  main category of EI and its sub categories and reading comprehension
63	Table 4.9. Correlation between 5th main category of EI and its sub categories and reading comprehension

 

 

 

Lists of Graphs

Page	Graphs
65	Graph 4.1. It shows the weak relationship between emotional intelligence and reading comprehension
66	Graph (4.2 &3). They show a big difference between the EI and RC `s mean scores
68	Graphs 4.4. The frequency graphs of the participants` answers to the 90 items of EI test

 

 

 

List of Abbreviations

 

 

EI                       Emotional intelligence

EQ                     Emotional Quotient

EQ-I                   Bar-On Emotional Intelligence Quotient Inventory

IQ                       Intelligence Quotient

RC                      Reading Comprehension

 

 

 

Abstract

The Relationship between Emotional Intelligence and Reading Comprehension: A Case Study of Junior Students of Bandar Abbas Islamic Azad University

 

The aim of the present research was to investigate the relationship between emotional intelligence and reading comprehension of junior students of Bandar Abbas Islamic Azad University majoring in English. 60 students took part in this research and it is worth mentioning that gender had no role in this study. The participants were asked to answer two different tests: first, a short form of Bar-on`s emotional intelligence test consists of 90 questions and second, a TOEFL reading comprehension test including 4 passages and 30 questions. Comparing the mean scores of the two tests indicated a weak relationship between these two variables. As the obtained results depicted emotional intelligence had significant correlation with the participants’ reading comprehension abilities (r=0.29) but, this relation was not to the extent that is expected to be.

 

Key terms: emotion, intelligence, emotional intelligence, emotional quotient, reading, and reading comprehension.

 

 

 

Chapter one

 

 

Introduction

 

 

 

 

 

 

1.1 Introduction

This chapter presents a brief background to the study of Emotional Intelligence and Reading Comprehension. Then it will be followed by the significance and objective of the study, research question and hypothesis, limitations and delimitations of the study and finally, the definitions of key terms.

 

1.2 Background

A comprehensive initial theory of emotional intelligence (EI) that could be measured appeared 20 years ago in the scientific literature (Mayer, Salovey, & DiPaolo, 1990; Salovey & Mayer, 1990). Thus, the term emotional intelligence was first introduced by Salovey and Mayer (1990) in the early 1990s and was made popular by Daniel Goleman with the 1995 publication of his book, Emotional Intelligence: Why It Can Matter More Than IQ. But, the earliest roots of emotional intelligence can be found in Charles Darwin’s work on the importance of emotional expression for survival and, second, adaptation (Bar-On, R., 2006). In 1872, Charles Darwin published the first known work on the importance of emotional expression for survival and adaptation, a component of emotional-social intelligence (Bar-On, 2005). Then, educators and policy makers have become increasingly aware of the significance of providing students with educational opportunities that enhance their emotional development (Graczyk, Weissberg, & Payton, 2000). In the field of psychology the roots of emotional intelligence can be traced back to the beginnings of the intelligence testing movement when, in 1920, E. L. Thorndike was the first to identify the aspect of emotional intelligence as social intelligence (Goleman, 2001, p. 16). According to Thorndike (1920), the concept of social intelligence refers to the “ability to understand and manage men, women, boys, and girls and to act wisely in human relations” (p. 228). E.L. Thorndike used the term social intelligence to describe the skill of understanding and managing other people. Goleman (2001) says that Howard Gardner revitalized the concept of emotional intelligence with his model of multiple intelligences. In 1983, Howard Gardner’s Frames of Mind: The Theory of Multiple Intelligences introduced the idea of multiple intelligences which included both interpersonal intelligence (the capacity to understand the intentions, motivations and desires of other people) and intrapersonal intelligence (the capacity to understand oneself, to appreciate one’s feelings, fears and motivations). In Gardner’s point of view, traditional types of intelligence, such as IQ, fail to fully explain cognitive ability (Smith, M.K., 2002). Similarly, in 1940 David Wechsler described the influence of non-intellective factors on intelligent behavior, and further argued that his models of intelligence would not be completed until he could adequately describe these factors (Bar-On, R., 2006). However, in 1988, Reuven Bar-On is reported as the first to assess emotional intelligence,  it is reported that Bar-On used the term emotional intelligence (EQ) in his doctoral dissertation long before it gained popularity as a name for emotional intelligence and long before Salovey and Mayer published their first model of intelligence (Goleman, 2001). Salovey and Mayer (1990) describe emotional intelligence as “the ability to monitor one’s own and others’ feelings and emotions, to discriminate among them and to use this information to guide one’s thinking and actions” (p. 189). As they describe emotional intelligence is the ability to perceive emotion, to access and generate emotions so as to assist thought; to understand emotions and emotional knowledge; to reflectively regulate emotions so as to promote emotional and intellectual growth. They also believe that there are four parts to emotional intelligence, which include (a) perceiving emotions, (b) using emotions to assist thought, © understanding emotions, and (d) managing emotions. In order for a person to be emotionally intelligent, they should be skilled in all four of these areas (Salovey & Mayer, 1990). However, in comparison, Goleman (1995) posits that emotional intelligence consists of five components: (a) knowing our emotions (self-awareness), (b) managing them, © motivating ourselves, (d) recognizing emotion in others (empathy), and (e) handling relationships.

Here, is a brief history of Emotional Intelligence by Kendra Cherry as cited in (psychology.about.com):

• 1930s – Edward Thorndike describes the concept of “social intelligence” as the ability to get along with other people.
• 1940s – David Wechsler suggests that affective components of intelligence may be essential to success in life.
• 1950s – Humanistic psychologists such as Abraham Maslow describe how people can build emotional strength.
• 1975 – Howard Gardner publishes The Shattered Mind, which introduces the concept of multiple intelligences.
• 1985 – Wayne Payne introduces the term emotional intelligence in his doctoral dissertation entitled “A study of emotion: developing emotional intelligence; self-integration; relating to fear, pain and desire (theory, structure of reality, problem-solving, contraction/expansion, and tuning in/coming out/letting go).”
• 1987 – In an article published in Mensa Magazine, Keith Beasley uses the term “emotional quotient.” It has been suggested that this is the first published use of the term, although Reuven Bar-On claims to have used the term in an unpublished version of his graduate thesis.
• 1990 – Psychologists Peter Salovey and John Mayer publish their landmark article, “Emotional Intelligence,” in the journal Imagination, Cognition, and Personality.
• 1995 – The concept of emotional intelligence is popularized after publication of psychologist and New York Times science writer Daniel Goleman’s book Emotional Intelligence: Why It Can Matter More Than IQ.

EI                       Emotional intelligence

EQ                     Emotional Quotient

EQ-I                   Bar-On Emotional Intelligence Quotient Inventory

IQ                       Intelligence Quotient

RC                      Reading Comprehension

 

 

 

Abstract

The Relationship between Emotional Intelligence and Reading Comprehension: A Case Study of Junior Students of Bandar Abbas Islamic Azad University

 

The aim of the present research was to investigate the relationship between emotional intelligence and reading comprehension of junior students of Bandar Abbas Islamic Azad University majoring in English. 60 students took part in this research and it is worth mentioning that gender had no role in this study. The participants were asked to answer two different tests: first, a short form of Bar-on`s emotional intelligence test consists of 90 questions and second, a TOEFL reading comprehension test including 4 passages and 30 questions. Comparing the mean scores of the two tests indicated a weak relationship between these two variables. As the obtained results depicted emotional intelligence had significant correlation with the participants’ reading comprehension abilities (r=0.29) but, this relation was not to the extent that is expected to be.

 

Key terms: emotion, intelligence, emotional intelligence, emotional quotient, reading, and reading comprehension.

 

 

 

Chapter one

 

 

Introduction

 

 

 

این مطلب را هم بخوانید :

 

 

 

 

1.1 Introduction

This chapter presents a brief background to the study of Emotional Intelligence and Reading Comprehension. Then it will be followed by the significance and objective of the study, research question and hypothesis, limitations and delimitations of the study and finally, the definitions of key terms.

 

1.2 Background

A comprehensive initial theory of emotional intelligence (EI) that could be measured appeared 20 years ago in the scientific literature (Mayer, Salovey, & DiPaolo, 1990; Salovey & Mayer, 1990). Thus, the term emotional intelligence was first introduced by Salovey and Mayer (1990) in the early 1990s and was made popular by Daniel Goleman with the 1995 publication of his book, Emotional Intelligence: Why It Can Matter More Than IQ. But, the earliest roots of emotional intelligence can be found in Charles Darwin’s work on the importance of emotional expression for survival and, second, adaptation (Bar-On, R., 2006). In 1872, Charles Darwin published the first known work on the importance of emotional expression for survival and adaptation, a component of emotional-social intelligence (Bar-On, 2005). Then, educators and policy makers have become increasingly aware of the significance of providing students with educational opportunities that enhance their emotional development (Graczyk, Weissberg, & Payton, 2000). In the field of psychology the roots of emotional intelligence can be traced back to the beginnings of the intelligence testing movement when, in 1920, E. L. Thorndike was the first to identify the aspect of emotional intelligence as social intelligence (Goleman, 2001, p. 16). According to Thorndike (1920), the concept of social intelligence refers to the “ability to understand and manage men, women, boys, and girls and to act wisely in human relations” (p. 228). E.L. Thorndike used the term social intelligence to describe the skill of understanding and managing other people. Goleman (2001) says that Howard Gardner revitalized the concept of emotional intelligence with his model of multiple intelligences. In 1983, Howard Gardner’s Frames of Mind: The Theory of Multiple Intelligences introduced the idea of multiple intelligences which included both interpersonal intelligence (the capacity to understand the intentions, motivations and desires of other people) and intrapersonal intelligence (the capacity to understand oneself, to appreciate one’s feelings, fears and motivations). In Gardner’s point of view, traditional types of intelligence, such as IQ, fail to fully explain cognitive ability (Smith, M.K., 2002). Similarly, in 1940 David Wechsler described the influence of non-intellective factors on intelligent behavior, and further argued that his models of intelligence would not be completed until he could adequately describe these factors (Bar-On, R., 2006). However, in 1988, Reuven Bar-On is reported as the first to assess emotional intelligence,  it is reported that Bar-On used the term emotional intelligence (EQ) in his doctoral dissertation long before it gained popularity as a name for emotional intelligence and long before Salovey and Mayer published their first model of intelligence (Goleman, 2001). Salovey and Mayer (1990) describe emotional intelligence as “the ability to monitor one’s own and others’ feelings and emotions, to discriminate among them and to use this information to guide one’s thinking and actions” (p. 189). As they describe emotional intelligence is the ability to perceive emotion, to access and generate emotions so as to assist thought; to understand emotions and emotional knowledge; to reflectively regulate emotions so as to promote emotional and intellectual growth. They also believe that there are four parts to emotional intelligence, which include (a) perceiving emotions, (b) using emotions to assist thought, © understanding emotions, and (d) managing emotions. In order for a person to be emotionally intelligent, they should be skilled in all four of these areas (Salovey & Mayer, 1990). However, in comparison, Goleman (1995) posits that emotional intelligence consists of five components: (a) knowing our emotions (self-awareness), (b) managing them, © motivating ourselves, (d) recognizing emotion in others (empathy), and (e) handling relationships.

Here, is a brief history of Emotional Intelligence by Kendra Cherry as cited in (psychology.about.com):

• 1930s – Edward Thorndike describes the concept of “social intelligence” as the ability to get along with other people.
• 1940s – David Wechsler suggests that affective components of intelligence may be essential to success in life.
• 1950s – Humanistic psychologists such as Abraham Maslow describe how people can build emotional strength.
• 1975 – Howard Gardner publishes The Shattered Mind, which introduces the concept of multiple intelligences.
• 1985 – Wayne Payne introduces the term emotional intelligence in his doctoral dissertation entitled “A study of emotion: developing emotional intelligence; self-integration; relating to fear, pain and desire (theory, structure of reality, problem-solving, contraction/expansion, and tuning in/coming out/letting go).”
• 1987 – In an article published in Mensa Magazine, Keith Beasley uses the term “emotional quotient.” It has been suggested that this is the first published use of the term, although Reuven Bar-On claims to have used the term in an unpublished version of his graduate thesis.
• 1990 – Psychologists Peter Salovey and John Mayer publish their landmark article, “Emotional Intelligence,” in the journal Imagination, Cognition, and Personality.
• 1995 – The concept of emotional intelligence is popularized after publication of psychologist and New York Times science writer Daniel Goleman’s book Emotional Intelligence: Why It Can Matter More Than IQ.

1-8- انواع مرکبات در کشور. 9

1-9- مشکلات کشت و کار مرکبات در ایران.. 9

1-10- اهمیت و اهداف پژوهش…. 10

 

فصل دوم: مروری بر پژوهشهای پیشین.. 13

2-1- تاریخچه و منشاء پیدایش مركبات در ایران و جهان.. 14

2-2- گیاهشناسی.. 16

2-2-1- گیاه. 17

2-2-2- گل.. 17

2-2-3- گل انگیزی.. 18

2-2-4- گرده افشانی.. 19

2-2-5- میوه. 19

2-3- گونه های مرکبات تحت کشت در ایران.. 20

2-3-1- پرتقال (Citrus sinensis) 20

2-3-2- نارنگی ها (C. reticulate) 21

2-3-3-گریپ فروت (C. paradise) 21

2-3-4- لیمو ترش (C. limon) 21

2-3-5- نارنج (C. aurantium) 22

2-4-………………………………………………………………………………………… ارزش غذایی و ترکیبات میوه. 24

2-5-…………………………………………………………………………………………………………… ازدیاد مرکبات.. 25

2-6-…………………………………………………………………………………………………. شرایط اقلیمی مركبات.. 26

2-7-…………………………………………………………………………………………………. تغذیه درختان مركبات.. 28

2-7-1- عناصر پرمصرف.. 29

2-7-1-1- ازت (نیتروژن) 29

2-7-1-2- فسفر. 30

2-7-1-3- پتاس… 31

2-7-1-4- کلسیم.. 31

2-7-1-5- منیزیم.. 32

1-8- انواع مرکبات در کشور. 9

1-9- مشکلات کشت و کار مرکبات در ایران.. 9

1-10- اهمیت و اهداف پژوهش…. 10

 

فصل دوم: مروری بر پژوهشهای پیشین.. 13

2-1- تاریخچه و منشاء پیدایش مركبات در ایران و جهان.. 14

2-2- گیاهشناسی.. 16

2-2-1- گیاه. 17

2-2-2- گل.. 17

2-2-3- گل انگیزی.. 18

2-2-4- گرده افشانی.. 19

2-2-5- میوه. 19

2-3- گونه های مرکبات تحت کشت در ایران.. 20

2-3-1- پرتقال (Citrus sinensis) 20

2-3-2- نارنگی ها (C. reticulate) 21

2-3-3-گریپ فروت (C. paradise) 21

2-3-4- لیمو ترش (C. limon) 21

2-3-5- نارنج (C. aurantium) 22

2-4-………………………………………………………………………………………… ارزش غذایی و ترکیبات میوه. 24

2-5-…………………………………………………………………………………………………………… ازدیاد مرکبات.. 25

2-6-…………………………………………………………………………………………………. شرایط اقلیمی مركبات.. 26

2-7-…………………………………………………………………………………………………. تغذیه درختان مركبات.. 28

2-7-1- عناصر پرمصرف.. 29

2-7-1-1- ازت (نیتروژن) 29

2-7-1-2- فسفر. 30

2-7-1-3- پتاس… 31

2-7-1-4- کلسیم.. 31

2-7-1-5- منیزیم.. 32

2-7-2-عناصر كم مصرف.. 32

2-7-2-1- آهن.. 32

2-7-2-2- روی.. 33

2-7-2-3- منگنز. 34

2-7-2-4- مس…. 34

2-7-2-5- بر. 34

2-7-2-6- مولیبدن.. 35

2-7-3- تاثیر عناصر مختلف بر مرکبات و علایم کمبود آنها 36

2-7-4- میزان کود. 37

2-7-5- زمان و نحوه‌ مصرف کودها 37

2-7-6-……………… کود حیوانی.. 38

2-7-7-…………….. کودهای زیستی.. 39

2-7-7-1-  نیتروکسین ( ازتوباکتر – آزوسپیریلیوم) 42

2-7-7-2-  کود فسفاته بارور-2. 45

2-7-7-3-  هیومیک اسید. 48

 

فصل سوم: مواد و روش ها 53

3-1- شرایط انجام پژوهش…. 54

3-2- مواد گیاهی.. 54

3-3- تیمارهای آزمایشی.. 55

3-4- صفات مورد اندازه گیری.. 55

3-5- طرح آزمایشی و آنالیز آماری.. 58

 

فصل چهارم: نتـــایج.. 60

4-1- ویژگی های کمی عملکرد. 61

4-1-1- تعداد میوه. 62

4-1-2- عملکرد میوه. 63

4-1-3- اندازه میوه. 64

4-2- ویژگی های کیفی میوه…………….. 65

4-2-1- حجم آب میوه. 67

4-2-2- مواد جامد محلول میوه (TSS) 67

4-2-3- اسید میوه. 68

4-2-4- نسبت بریکس به اسید قابل تیتر. 69

4-2-5- رنگ میوه. 70

 

فصل پنجم: بحث و نتیجه گیری.. 75

5-1- ویژگی های کمی میوه. 76

تعداد میوه در درخت… 76

عملکرد درختان پرتقال.. 78

متوسط وزن و قطر میوه. 79

3-6- ویژگی های کیفی میوه. 80

جمع بندی.. 83

پیشنهادات.. 85

 

منابع.. 86

فهرست جدول ها

جدول 1-1- میزان تولید مركبات در كشورهای عمده جهان.. 6

جدول شماره 1-2. پراکندگی انواع مرکبات در استانهای کشور. 22

جدول شماره 2-2. مقدار مواد معدنی موجود در یک تن میوه پرتقال. 24

جدول 3-2. حداقل درجه حرارت قابل تحمل گونه های مختلف مركبات (برحسب سانتی گراد) 27

جدول 4-2- حد بهینه عناصر غذایی كم مصرف و پرمصرف در پرتقال. 38

جدول 1-3. ویژگی های فیزیکوشیمیایی خاک مورد استفاده. 54

جدول 1-4. نتایج تجزیه واریانس صفات کمی میوه درختان پرتقال والنسیا در پاسخ به کاربرد کودهای زیستی. 61

جدول 4-2- نتایج تجزیه واریانس صفات کیفی میوه درختان پرتقال والنسیا در پاسخ به کاربرد کودهای زیستی. 66

جدول 4-3-  نتایج تجزیه واریانس شاخص های رنگ میوه درختان پرتقال والنسیا در پاسخ به کاربرد کودهای زیستی. 71

 

فهرست شکل ها

شکل 1-1- نواحی عمده کشت و کار مرکبات در ایران.. 7

شکل 1-2. نمایی از کود نیتروکسین مورد استفاده در این پژوهش، حاوی (ازتوباکتر و آزوسپیریلیوم) 45

شکل 2-2. نمایی از کود فسفاته بارور مورد استفاده در این پژوهش…. 48

شکل 3-2. نمایی از کود هیومیک اسید مورد استفاده در این پژوهش. 52

شکل 1-3. دستگاه رفرکتومتر مورد استفاده در تعیین مقدار TSS در آب میوه پرتقال. 56

شکل 2-3. تشکیل رنگ صورتی به عنوان نقطه پایان تیتراسیون اسید های آلی میوه. 57

شکل 3-3. دستگاه کرومامتر Minolta CR400 مورد استفاده در اندازه گیری رنگ میوه. 58

شکل 4-3. نقشه طرح آزمایشی در محل انجام پژوهش. 59

اسید هیونیک=AH، نیتروکسین=N و بارور2=B2. 59

شکل 1-4. اثر کاربرد کودهای زیستی بر تعداد میوه در هر درخت پرتقال والنسیا. 62

شکل 4-2- اثر کاربرد کودهای زیستی بر عملکرد میوه درختان پرتقال والنسیا. 63

شکل 4-3- اثر کاربرد کودهای زیستی بر متوسط وزن میوه پرتقال والنسیا. 64

شکل 4-4- اثر کاربرد کودهای زیستی بر قطر میوه پرتقال والنسیا. 65

شکل 4-5- اثر کاربرد کودهای زیستی بر حجم آب میوه پرتقال والنسیا. 67

شکل 4-6- اثر کاربرد کودهای زیستی بر مقدار مواد جامد محلول میوه پرتقال والنسیا. 68

شکل 4-7- اثر کاربرد کودهای زیستی بر درصد اسید قابل تیتر در آب میوه پرتقال والنسیا. 69

شکل 4-8- اثر کاربرد کودهای زیستی بر نسبت بریکس به اسید قابل تیتر در آب میوه پرتقال والنسیا. 70

 

2-7-2-عناصر كم مصرف.. 32

2-7-2-1- آهن.. 32

2-7-2-2- روی.. 33

2-7-2-3- منگنز. 34

2-7-2-4- مس…. 34

2-7-2-5- بر. 34

2-7-2-6- مولیبدن.. 35

2-7-3- تاثیر عناصر مختلف بر مرکبات و علایم کمبود آنها 36

2-7-4- میزان کود. 37

2-7-5- زمان و نحوه‌ مصرف کودها 37

2-7-6-……………… کود حیوانی.. 38

2-7-7-…………….. کودهای زیستی.. 39

2-7-7-1-  نیتروکسین ( ازتوباکتر – آزوسپیریلیوم) 42

2-7-7-2-  کود فسفاته بارور-2. 45

2-7-7-3-  هیومیک اسید. 48

 

فصل سوم: مواد و روش ها 53

3-1- شرایط انجام پژوهش…. 54

3-2- مواد گیاهی.. 54

3-3- تیمارهای آزمایشی.. 55

3-4- صفات مورد اندازه گیری.. 55

3-5- طرح آزمایشی و آنالیز آماری.. 58

 

فصل چهارم: نتـــایج.. 60

4-1- ویژگی های کمی عملکرد. 61

4-1-1- تعداد میوه. 62

4-1-2- عملکرد میوه. 63

4-1-3- اندازه میوه. 64

این مطلب را هم بخوانید :

4-2- ویژگی های کیفی میوه…………….. 65

4-2-1- حجم آب میوه. 67

4-2-2- مواد جامد محلول میوه (TSS) 67

4-2-3- اسید میوه. 68

4-2-4- نسبت بریکس به اسید قابل تیتر. 69

4-2-5- رنگ میوه. 70

 

فصل پنجم: بحث و نتیجه گیری.. 75

5-1- ویژگی های کمی میوه. 76

تعداد میوه در درخت… 76

عملکرد درختان پرتقال.. 78

متوسط وزن و قطر میوه. 79

3-6- ویژگی های کیفی میوه. 80

جمع بندی.. 83

پیشنهادات.. 85

 

منابع.. 86

فهرست جدول ها

جدول 1-1- میزان تولید مركبات در كشورهای عمده جهان.. 6

جدول شماره 1-2. پراکندگی انواع مرکبات در استانهای کشور. 22

جدول شماره 2-2. مقدار مواد معدنی موجود در یک تن میوه پرتقال. 24

جدول 3-2. حداقل درجه حرارت قابل تحمل گونه های مختلف مركبات (برحسب سانتی گراد) 27

جدول 4-2- حد بهینه عناصر غذایی كم مصرف و پرمصرف در پرتقال. 38

جدول 1-3. ویژگی های فیزیکوشیمیایی خاک مورد استفاده. 54

جدول 1-4. نتایج تجزیه واریانس صفات کمی میوه درختان پرتقال والنسیا در پاسخ به کاربرد کودهای زیستی. 61

جدول 4-2- نتایج تجزیه واریانس صفات کیفی میوه درختان پرتقال والنسیا در پاسخ به کاربرد کودهای زیستی. 66

جدول 4-3-  نتایج تجزیه واریانس شاخص های رنگ میوه درختان پرتقال والنسیا در پاسخ به کاربرد کودهای زیستی. 71

 

فهرست شکل ها

شکل 1-1- نواحی عمده کشت و کار مرکبات در ایران.. 7

شکل 1-2. نمایی از کود نیتروکسین مورد استفاده در این پژوهش، حاوی (ازتوباکتر و آزوسپیریلیوم) 45

شکل 2-2. نمایی از کود فسفاته بارور مورد استفاده در این پژوهش…. 48

شکل 3-2. نمایی از کود هیومیک اسید مورد استفاده در این پژوهش. 52

شکل 1-3. دستگاه رفرکتومتر مورد استفاده در تعیین مقدار TSS در آب میوه پرتقال. 56

شکل 2-3. تشکیل رنگ صورتی به عنوان نقطه پایان تیتراسیون اسید های آلی میوه. 57

شکل 3-3. دستگاه کرومامتر Minolta CR400 مورد استفاده در اندازه گیری رنگ میوه. 58

شکل 4-3. نقشه طرح آزمایشی در محل انجام پژوهش. 59

اسید هیونیک=AH، نیتروکسین=N و بارور2=B2. 59

شکل 1-4. اثر کاربرد کودهای زیستی بر تعداد میوه در هر درخت پرتقال والنسیا. 62

شکل 4-2- اثر کاربرد کودهای زیستی بر عملکرد میوه درختان پرتقال والنسیا. 63

شکل 4-3- اثر کاربرد کودهای زیستی بر متوسط وزن میوه پرتقال والنسیا. 64

شکل 4-4- اثر کاربرد کودهای زیستی بر قطر میوه پرتقال والنسیا. 65

شکل 4-5- اثر کاربرد کودهای زیستی بر حجم آب میوه پرتقال والنسیا. 67

شکل 4-6- اثر کاربرد کودهای زیستی بر مقدار مواد جامد محلول میوه پرتقال والنسیا. 68

شکل 4-7- اثر کاربرد کودهای زیستی بر درصد اسید قابل تیتر در آب میوه پرتقال والنسیا. 69

شکل 4-8- اثر کاربرد کودهای زیستی بر نسبت بریکس به اسید قابل تیتر در آب میوه پرتقال والنسیا. 70