Table of Content

 

Title                                                                                                                                page

Abstract ………………………………………………………………………….…….….1

Chapter 1: introduction

• . Introduction ……………………………………………………….………………….2

1.1. Theoretical Framework…………………………………………………….……………4

• Significance of the study………………………………………….….………….……8

1.3. Purpose of the study………………………………………………………………..….8

1.4. Statement of the Problem………………………………………………….………..…10

1.5. Research Questions of the Study ………….……………………………………….…12

1.6. Hypotheses of the study………………………………………..……………………..13

1.7. Definition of Key Terms …………………………………………………..……..….13

1.8. Summary……………………………………………………………………………….13

Chapter 2: Review of the Literature

2.0 Introduction………………………………………………………………….…….…..15

2.1 Grammar ………………………………………….…………………………………………16

2.1.1. Historical overview of grammar……………………………………………… 16

2.1.2. Different attitudes towards Grammar……………………………………..….18

2.1.3. Grammar in different points of view………………………………………….19

2.2. Nature of the grammar in Relation to Second Language Acquisition Processes…19

2.2.1. Input…………………………..…………………………………..……………20

2.2.2. Intake…………………………………………….…….………….………..…20

2.2.3. Acquisition……………….…………..………………………………………….21

2.2.4. Access…………………………………………………………………..….…..22

2.2.5.output…………………………………………………………………..….……23

2.3 Grammar Teaching………………………………………..……………………………23

2.3.1. Stages of Grammar Teaching………………………………………………………………25

Table of Content

 

Title                                                                                                                                page

Abstract ………………………………………………………………………….…….….1

Chapter 1: introduction

• . Introduction ……………………………………………………….………………….2

1.1. Theoretical Framework…………………………………………………….……………4

• Significance of the study………………………………………….….………….……8

1.3. Purpose of the study………………………………………………………………..….8

1.4. Statement of the Problem………………………………………………….………..…10

1.5. Research Questions of the Study ………….……………………………………….…12

1.6. Hypotheses of the study………………………………………..……………………..13

1.7. Definition of Key Terms …………………………………………………..……..….13

1.8. Summary……………………………………………………………………………….13

Chapter 2: Review of the Literature

2.0 Introduction………………………………………………………………….…….…..15

2.1 Grammar ………………………………………….…………………………………………16

2.1.1. Historical overview of grammar……………………………………………… 16

2.1.2. Different attitudes towards Grammar……………………………………..….18

2.1.3. Grammar in different points of view………………………………………….19

2.2. Nature of the grammar in Relation to Second Language Acquisition Processes…19

2.2.1. Input…………………………..…………………………………..……………20

2.2.2. Intake…………………………………………….…….………….………..…20

2.2.3. Acquisition……………….…………..………………………………………….21

2.2.4. Access…………………………………………………………………..….…..22

2.2.5.output…………………………………………………………………..….……23

2.3 Grammar Teaching………………………………………..……………………………23

2.3.1. Stages of Grammar Teaching………………………………………………………………25

2.4. Principles of Grammar Teaching in relation to different rules and approaches…..…27

2.4.1. Some beliefs about explicit grammar…………………………………….……29

2.4.2. A move towards the implicit………………………………………………..…30

2.4.3. Implicit instruction……………………………………..………………….…..30

2.4.3.1. What kind ofknowledge can be learnt implicitly?………………………………30

2.4.3.2. Age and Implicit learning………………………………………….……31

2.4.3.3. Theories of SLA and Implicit learning…………………………………..……32

2.4.3.4. Implicit learning and instructed………………………………………….32

2. 4.3.5. Implicit vs. explicit inter-face……………………………………….….34

2.4.3.6. The relationship between explicit and implicit………………………..…….34

2.4.4. Consciousness-Raising in Second Language Learning………..………………35

1. The interface position……………………………………………………………….36
2. The non-interface position……………………………….……………..………. 38
3. The variability position…………………………………………………………….40

2.4.4.1. Consciousness-raising in grammar teaching………………….…….….41

2.4.5. Approaches to teaching Grammar……………………………………….……..44

2.4.6. Form-based and meaning-based instruction……………………………….………45

2.4.6.1. Focus-on-form (FonF) ………………………………………………….…..46

2.4.6.1.1. Focus on Form Tasks and Techniques……………………………………..48

2.4.6.2. Focus-on-forms (FonFS)………………………………………………..…..48

2.4.6.3. Focus on Meaning……………………………………………….……………….49

2.4.7. The role of grammar instruction……………….………………….……………….50

2.4.8. Some gaps in teaching Grammar…………………………………………………..52

2.5. The use of grammatical terminology…………………………………………..…….52

2.5.1. Communicative competence……………………………..…………………….….53

2.5.2. Grammatical competence………………………………………….…..….….…..54

2.5.3. Sociolinguistic competence…………………………………………….……..…..55

2.5.4. Strategic competence………………………………………………….…….……..55

2.6. The role of task-based approach on grammatical accuracy and fluency…………..56

2.7. Nature of songs………………………………………………………………….….57

2.8. Conceptual framework and characteristics of Song………………………………..57

2.9. The Effects of song on Language Acquisition……………………………….…….59

2.10. Studies on using song in language classes……………………………….……….59

2.11. The influence of songs in Foreign Language classes…………………………….60

2.12. Advantages of using songs……………………………………………………….61

2.13. The positive contributions of songs to language learning………………………..61

2.13.1. Socio-emotional growth………………………………………………………..61

2.13.2. Physical development…………………………………………………………..62

2.13.3Cognitive training………………………………………………………………..62

2.13.4. Language learning………………………………………………………………62

2.14. Classification of the song…………………………………………………………..62

2.15. The criteria for selecting songs in language teaching…………………..…………..63

2.16. Stages of listening to the Song………………………………………………….…..65

2.16.1. Pre-listening activities………………………………………..………………..…65

2.16.2. Listening Activities…………………………………………………………………66

2.16.3. Post-listening activities……………………………………………………….…..66

2.17. Practical tips and tasks for using songs……………………………………….……67

2.18. Summary ……………………………………………………………………..……69

Chapter 3: Methodology

3.0. Introduction…………………………………….……………………………………70

3.1. Pilot Study……………………………………………………………………………70

3.2. The Design of the Study………………………………………………….……..……71

3.3. Participants………………………………………………………………………..…72

3.4. Instruments and Materials………………………………………………………….…72

3.4.1. Oxford Placement Test………………………………………………….………72

3.4.2. Grammar tests…………………………………………………………….….….73

3.4.3. Song ……………………………………………………………………….……73

3.4.4. Issues of Reliability and Validity…………………………………….…………73

3.5. Data collection procedure………………………………………………………..…..74

3.6. Methods of Analyzing Data ………………………………………………….………74

3.7. Summary…………………………………………………………………………..….75

Chapter four: Results and discussion

4.0. Introduction……………………………………………………………………..…..76

4.1. pilot study………………………………………………………………………..…..77

4.2. Main study………………………………………………………………………..….77

4.2.1. Evaluation of overall foreign language proficiency (OPT test for the sampling purpose)…………………………………………………………………………….…77

4.2.2. Examining the normality assumption of the parametric tests applied for the research questions……………………………………………………..……..………..79

4.2.3. The first research question: Does using song have any significant effect on lower intermediate EFL learners’ grammar accuracy?…………………………………………………..81

4.2.4. The second research question: Does using song affect female and male EFL learners’ grammar accuracy differently?……………………………………………………………..86

Chapter Five: Discussion

5.0. Introduction ……………………………………………………………………………….88

5.1. Summary and Conclusions……………………………………………………….….88

5.2. Pedagogical Implications……………………………………………..……………..90

5.3. Limitations of the Study……………………………………………………………..91

5.4. Suggestions for Further Research…………………………………………………….92

5.5. Summary……………………………………………………………………….…….…92

Reference …………………………………………………………………………..……93

Appendix ………………………………………………………………………………115

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

List of Tables

 

Table 4.1 Reliability Statistics…………………………………………………………….77

Table 4.2 Statistics for the results of OPT test………………………………..………….78

Table 4.3Statistics for the pre-test and post –test scores of the control and experimental groups……………………………………………………………………………………79

Table 4.4One-Sample Kolmogorov-Smirnov Test for the pre-test and post-test scores of the control and experimental groups……………………………………………………..80

Table 4.5Group statistics for the control and experimental groups on grammar pre-test……………………………………………………………………………………….81

Table 4.6Independent Samples Test for the control and experimental groups’ pre-test grammar scores……………………………………………………………………….….82

Table 4.7Group statistics for the control and experimental groups on grammar post-test………………………………………………………………………………………..84

Table 4.8Independent Samples Test for the control and experimental groups’ pre-test grammar scores…………………………………………………………………………..84

Table 4.9Group statistics for the male and female groups on grammar post-test…………………………………………………………………………………….….86

Table 4.10Independent Samples Test for the control and experimental groups’ pre-test grammar scores………………………….……………………………………………….86

 

 

 

 

 

List of Figures

 

Figure 2.1 A Model of Second Language Learning and Use….…………….……………19

Figure 4.1 Experimental and control groups’ scores in grammar accuracy test (pre-test)………………………………………………………………………………..………83

Figure 4.2 Experimental and control groups’ scores in grammar accuracy test (post-test)………………………………………………………………………………..………85

Figure 4.3 The comparison between male and female participants’ grammar scores in post-test………………………………………………………….……….……….………….87

 

 

Abstract

The present study investigated the effect of using song on Iranian EFL learners’ grammar accuracy (WH-question). This study tried to determine the extent to which awareness raising along with efficient amount of listening to song affects the grammar accuracy of Iranian Intermediate learners. To answer this question, 60 Intermediate language learners in Sama high school in Lahidjan who were selected via administration of an OPT exam to 130 language learners. Then, they were divided into two groups of 30 participants each, in which 15 male and 15 female have been put. Participants in the experimental group were instructed on a certain plan to gasp the grammatical point by listening to some songs. In this study the focus was on using song in class environment which means grammatical points can better be extracted unconsciously. In the control group no treatment has been done and learners received a normal routine of the semester as they always did. Two validated standardized tests of grammar (pre-test and post-test)were administered to both groups, the papers were assessed carefully .The data retrieved from both groups was analyzed through calculating a t-test. The results indicated that the means of the two groups were significantly different. In another attempt the post-test result of male and female participants in experimental group have been analyzed via running of another round of a t-test, however, no significant difference has been notified between male and female participants.

 

Key terms: Grammar accuracy; Song; WH-question

 

 

 

 

 

 

Chapter One

Introduction

 

 

 

 

 

 

1.0. Introduction

Teaching a foreign language is so complex that grammar is the most difficult problems of anyone who wishes to teach it systematically. Teaching grammar has always seen one of the controversial issues in both second and foreign language teaching. As Batstone (1994) states, grammar is a greatly broad and diverse phenomenon which characterizes three interdependent dimensions: form, meaning and use. This

 

2.4. Principles of Grammar Teaching in relation to different rules and approaches…..…27

2.4.1. Some beliefs about explicit grammar…………………………………….……29

2.4.2. A move towards the implicit………………………………………………..…30

2.4.3. Implicit instruction……………………………………..………………….…..30

2.4.3.1. What kind ofknowledge can be learnt implicitly?………………………………30

2.4.3.2. Age and Implicit learning………………………………………….……31

2.4.3.3. Theories of SLA and Implicit learning…………………………………..……32

2.4.3.4. Implicit learning and instructed………………………………………….32

2. 4.3.5. Implicit vs. explicit inter-face……………………………………….….34

2.4.3.6. The relationship between explicit and implicit………………………..…….34

2.4.4. Consciousness-Raising in Second Language Learning………..………………35

1. The interface position……………………………………………………………….36
2. The non-interface position……………………………….……………..………. 38
3. The variability position…………………………………………………………….40

2.4.4.1. Consciousness-raising in grammar teaching………………….…….….41

2.4.5. Approaches to teaching Grammar……………………………………….……..44

2.4.6. Form-based and meaning-based instruction……………………………….………45

2.4.6.1. Focus-on-form (FonF) ………………………………………………….…..46

2.4.6.1.1. Focus on Form Tasks and Techniques……………………………………..48

2.4.6.2. Focus-on-forms (FonFS)………………………………………………..…..48

2.4.6.3. Focus on Meaning……………………………………………….……………….49

2.4.7. The role of grammar instruction……………….………………….……………….50

2.4.8. Some gaps in teaching Grammar…………………………………………………..52

2.5. The use of grammatical terminology…………………………………………..…….52

2.5.1. Communicative competence……………………………..…………………….….53

2.5.2. Grammatical competence………………………………………….…..….….…..54

2.5.3. Sociolinguistic competence…………………………………………….……..…..55

2.5.4. Strategic competence………………………………………………….…….……..55

2.6. The role of task-based approach on grammatical accuracy and fluency…………..56

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2.7. Nature of songs………………………………………………………………….….57

2.8. Conceptual framework and characteristics of Song………………………………..57

2.9. The Effects of song on Language Acquisition……………………………….…….59

2.10. Studies on using song in language classes……………………………….……….59

2.11. The influence of songs in Foreign Language classes…………………………….60

2.12. Advantages of using songs……………………………………………………….61

2.13. The positive contributions of songs to language learning………………………..61

2.13.1. Socio-emotional growth………………………………………………………..61

2.13.2. Physical development…………………………………………………………..62

2.13.3Cognitive training………………………………………………………………..62

2.13.4. Language learning………………………………………………………………62

2.14. Classification of the song…………………………………………………………..62

2.15. The criteria for selecting songs in language teaching…………………..…………..63

2.16. Stages of listening to the Song………………………………………………….…..65

2.16.1. Pre-listening activities………………………………………..………………..…65

2.16.2. Listening Activities…………………………………………………………………66

2.16.3. Post-listening activities……………………………………………………….…..66

2.17. Practical tips and tasks for using songs……………………………………….……67

2.18. Summary ……………………………………………………………………..……69

Chapter 3: Methodology

3.0. Introduction…………………………………….……………………………………70

3.1. Pilot Study……………………………………………………………………………70

3.2. The Design of the Study………………………………………………….……..……71

3.3. Participants………………………………………………………………………..…72

3.4. Instruments and Materials………………………………………………………….…72

3.4.1. Oxford Placement Test………………………………………………….………72

3.4.2. Grammar tests…………………………………………………………….….….73

3.4.3. Song ……………………………………………………………………….……73

3.4.4. Issues of Reliability and Validity…………………………………….…………73

3.5. Data collection procedure………………………………………………………..…..74

3.6. Methods of Analyzing Data ………………………………………………….………74

3.7. Summary…………………………………………………………………………..….75

Chapter four: Results and discussion

4.0. Introduction……………………………………………………………………..…..76

4.1. pilot study………………………………………………………………………..…..77

4.2. Main study………………………………………………………………………..….77

4.2.1. Evaluation of overall foreign language proficiency (OPT test for the sampling purpose)…………………………………………………………………………….…77

4.2.2. Examining the normality assumption of the parametric tests applied for the research questions……………………………………………………..……..………..79

4.2.3. The first research question: Does using song have any significant effect on lower intermediate EFL learners’ grammar accuracy?…………………………………………………..81

4.2.4. The second research question: Does using song affect female and male EFL learners’ grammar accuracy differently?……………………………………………………………..86

Chapter Five: Discussion

5.0. Introduction ……………………………………………………………………………….88

5.1. Summary and Conclusions……………………………………………………….….88

5.2. Pedagogical Implications……………………………………………..……………..90

5.3. Limitations of the Study……………………………………………………………..91

5.4. Suggestions for Further Research…………………………………………………….92

5.5. Summary……………………………………………………………………….…….…92

Reference …………………………………………………………………………..……93

Appendix ………………………………………………………………………………115

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

List of Tables

 

Table 4.1 Reliability Statistics…………………………………………………………….77

Table 4.2 Statistics for the results of OPT test………………………………..………….78

Table 4.3Statistics for the pre-test and post –test scores of the control and experimental groups……………………………………………………………………………………79

Table 4.4One-Sample Kolmogorov-Smirnov Test for the pre-test and post-test scores of the control and experimental groups……………………………………………………..80

Table 4.5Group statistics for the control and experimental groups on grammar pre-test……………………………………………………………………………………….81

Table 4.6Independent Samples Test for the control and experimental groups’ pre-test grammar scores……………………………………………………………………….….82

Table 4.7Group statistics for the control and experimental groups on grammar post-test………………………………………………………………………………………..84

Table 4.8Independent Samples Test for the control and experimental groups’ pre-test grammar scores…………………………………………………………………………..84

Table 4.9Group statistics for the male and female groups on grammar post-test…………………………………………………………………………………….….86

Table 4.10Independent Samples Test for the control and experimental groups’ pre-test grammar scores………………………….……………………………………………….86

 

 

 

 

 

List of Figures

 

Figure 2.1 A Model of Second Language Learning and Use….…………….……………19

Figure 4.1 Experimental and control groups’ scores in grammar accuracy test (pre-test)………………………………………………………………………………..………83

Figure 4.2 Experimental and control groups’ scores in grammar accuracy test (post-test)………………………………………………………………………………..………85

Figure 4.3 The comparison between male and female participants’ grammar scores in post-test………………………………………………………….……….……….………….87

 

 

Abstract

The present study investigated the effect of using song on Iranian EFL learners’ grammar accuracy (WH-question). This study tried to determine the extent to which awareness raising along with efficient amount of listening to song affects the grammar accuracy of Iranian Intermediate learners. To answer this question, 60 Intermediate language learners in Sama high school in Lahidjan who were selected via administration of an OPT exam to 130 language learners. Then, they were divided into two groups of 30 participants each, in which 15 male and 15 female have been put. Participants in the experimental group were instructed on a certain plan to gasp the grammatical point by listening to some songs. In this study the focus was on using song in class environment which means grammatical points can better be extracted unconsciously. In the control group no treatment has been done and learners received a normal routine of the semester as they always did. Two validated standardized tests of grammar (pre-test and post-test)were administered to both groups, the papers were assessed carefully .The data retrieved from both groups was analyzed through calculating a t-test. The results indicated that the means of the two groups were significantly different. In another attempt the post-test result of male and female participants in experimental group have been analyzed via running of another round of a t-test, however, no significant difference has been notified between male and female participants.

 

Key terms: Grammar accuracy; Song; WH-question

 

 

 

 

 

 

Chapter One

Introduction

 

 

 

 

 

 

1.0. Introduction

Teaching a foreign language is so complex that grammar is the most difficult problems of anyone who wishes to teach it systematically. Teaching grammar has always seen one of the controversial issues in both second and foreign language teaching. As Batstone (1994) states, grammar is a greatly broad and diverse phenomenon which characterizes three interdependent dimensions: form, meaning and use. This

کلمات کلیدی:  بازخوردتصحیحی, دانش دستوری, رفع اشکال ضمنی اعلانی, رفع اشکال ضمنی پرسشی, رفع اشکال غیرمستقیم, رفع اشکال مستقیم

 

Table of Contents

Title                                                                                                                      Page

Acknowledgements………………………………………………………….…….VI

List of Tables………………………………………………………………………X

List of Figures………………………………………………………………….……X

Abstract……………………………………………………………………………XI

Chapter One: Introduction

Preliminaries……………………………………………………………………….2

Statement of Problem ……………………………………………………………..3

The Significance of the study………………………………………………..…….4

Objectives of the Study……………………………………………..……………..5

Research Questions and Hypotheses…………………..…………………………..5

Definition of the Key Terms…………………….…………………………………6

Chapter Two: Review of the Literature

Introduction………………………………………………………………………10

Errors and Mistakes….……………………………………………………………11

Types of Errors to Be Corrected………………………………………………12

The Best Time for Error Correction……………………………………….…19

Teacher-, Peer-, or Self-Correction…………………………………….…….23

Corrective Feedback from Different Viewpoints…………………………..…….26

Positive Perspectives on Corrective Feedback………………………….……28

Negative perspectives on Corrective Feedback……………………………….33

Types of Corrective Feedback………………………………………..………….36

Overt Correction……………………………………………………….……..42

Recasts…………………………………………………………………….….49

Declarative and Interrogative Recasts………………………………….58

کلمات کلیدی:  بازخوردتصحیحی, دانش دستوری, رفع اشکال ضمنی اعلانی, رفع اشکال ضمنی پرسشی, رفع اشکال غیرمستقیم, رفع اشکال مستقیم

 

Table of Contents

Title                                                                                                                      Page

Acknowledgements………………………………………………………….…….VI

List of Tables………………………………………………………………………X

List of Figures………………………………………………………………….……X

Abstract……………………………………………………………………………XI

Chapter One: Introduction

Preliminaries……………………………………………………………………….2

Statement of Problem ……………………………………………………………..3

The Significance of the study………………………………………………..…….4

Objectives of the Study……………………………………………..……………..5

Research Questions and Hypotheses…………………..…………………………..5

Definition of the Key Terms…………………….…………………………………6

Chapter Two: Review of the Literature

Introduction………………………………………………………………………10

Errors and Mistakes….……………………………………………………………11

Types of Errors to Be Corrected………………………………………………12

The Best Time for Error Correction……………………………………….…19

Teacher-, Peer-, or Self-Correction…………………………………….…….23

Corrective Feedback from Different Viewpoints…………………………..…….26

Positive Perspectives on Corrective Feedback………………………….……28

Negative perspectives on Corrective Feedback……………………………….33

Types of Corrective Feedback………………………………………..………….36

Overt Correction……………………………………………………….……..42

Recasts…………………………………………………………………….….49

Declarative and Interrogative Recasts………………………………….58

Advantages and Disadvantages of Recasts……………………………..59

Uptake…………………………..………………………………………………..63

Final Remarks……………………………..……………………………………..65

Chapter Three: Method

Introduction……………………………………………………………..………..69

Setting and Participants………………………………..…………………………69

Instruments………………………………..………………………………………70

Procedures……………………………………..…………………………………71

Data Analysis………………………………………………………………….…73

Design……………………………………………………………………..……..73

Chapter Four: Data Analysis and Results

Introduction…………………………………………..…………………………..75

Results…………………………………………..………………………………..75

Chapter Five: Summary, Discussion, and Conclusion

Introduction……………………………..………………………………………..84

Summary…………………………………………………………………………84

Discussion……………………………………………………………………..…86

Conclusion………………………………………………………………………..89

Pedagogical Implications………………………..……………………………….90

Limitations of the Study……………………………..……………………………92

Suggestions for Further Research……………………..…………………………93

References…………………………………………………………………………95

Appendices……………………………………………………………………….118

Appendix A: Test of Grammar…………………………………………………119

Appendix B: Reliability Calculation……………………………………………122

Appendix C: Consent form……………………………………………..………125

List of Tables

Title                                                                                                                      Page

Table 2.1 Twelve Descriptive Studies of Classroom CF in Ascending Order of CF Moves per Hour…………………………………………………………………….57

Table 4.1 Descriptive Statistics for the Participants’ Homogeneity in the Pre-test..75

Table 4.2 Independent Samples t-test for the Homogeneity of the Recast and Overt Correction Groups………………………………………………………………….76

Table 4.3 Descriptive Statistics for the Overt Correction Group….……………….76

Table 4.4 Paired Samples t-test for the Overt Correction Group……..……………77

Table 4.5 Descriptive Statistics for the Recast Group…………….………………..78

Table 4.6 Paired Samples t-test for the Recast Group……………..………………78

Table 4.7 Group Statistics for the Recast and Overt Correction Groups……..……79

Table 4.8 Independent Samples t-test for the Overt Correction and Recast Groups79

 

Table 4.9 Percentages of the Responses……………………………………………81

 

Table 4.10 Chi-square Test Results……………..…………………………………81

 

 

 

List of Figures

 

Figure 2.1………………………………………………………………………..…52

 

 

 

 

 

 

Abstract

The need to make corrections is inherent in the teaching profession, but teachers are often unsure as to how much to correct, or even how to go about it. Although a large body of research examined the effectiveness of certain types of error treatment methods, there has been little research done to investigate the efficacy of different types of corrective feedback on EFL learners’ grammar accuracy through eliciting repeated performances. The main objective of the study was to see if two types of corrective feedback, overt correction and recast, could help Iranian EFL learners’ grammar achievement at the intermediate level. The study was also an attempt to see which of these two types of corrective feedback could lead to a better grammar achievement. In addition, two methods of recast, declarative and interrogative, were under investigation to figure out which method of recast Iranian EFL learners at the intermediate level preferred to be used by instructors. Fifty male EFL students studying at the intermediate level at the Iran Language Institute, Yazd branch, Iran, took part in this study. They were divided into two groups who received corrective feedback through overt correction and recast. A pre-test was administered at the beginning before the consecutive process of corrective feedback provision started, and a post-test was given at the end when the process finished. The procedure of test administration and the content was the same for both overt correction and recast groups. The only difference was in the treatment, in which the errors of the overt correction group were corrected overtly, but the errors of the recast group were corrected implicitly. The results of the study indicated that both overt correction and recast as two types of corrective feedback could help Iranian language learners at the intermediate level develop their grammar knowledge over the instruction. Between-groups comparison revealed that there was no significant difference between the overt correction and recast groups with regard to their grammar performance. Additionally, a survey was conducted to explore the participants’ preferable type of recast, declarative or interrogative. A careful consideration of the percentages of declarative and interrogative recast choices showed a significant preference for interrogative recasts by the group receiving recasts in their class. The findings of this study suggested that both overt correction and recast are equally beneficial and might facilitate the process of grammar acquisition by Iranian EFL learners at the intermediate level.

 

Keywords: Corrective Feedback, Declarative Recasts, Grammar Knowledge, Interrogative Recasts, Overt Correction, Recasts.

 

 

 

Chapter One

Introduction

 

 

 

 

Preliminaries

Error correction of both oral and written mistakes occupies a prominent place in English Language Teaching (ELT) literature and continues to be a divisive issue. In the past, the consensus was that errors of any kind were bad. While reading aloud in class, students would have every pronunciation mistake corrected on the spot. In written work, all mistakes would be shown, very seriously put in red ink. Offering an answer in class often risked losing face and sometimes being reprimanded for being lazy if the answer was incorrect. More recently, however, in English language classrooms, there has been a shift in attitude to errors. Errors are regarded as indicators that learners are experimenting with a language, or testing out a new language hypothesis, or progressing in general.

 

Advantages and Disadvantages of Recasts……………………………..59

Uptake…………………………..………………………………………………..63

Final Remarks……………………………..……………………………………..65

Chapter Three: Method

Introduction……………………………………………………………..………..69

Setting and Participants………………………………..…………………………69

Instruments………………………………..………………………………………70

Procedures……………………………………..…………………………………71

Data Analysis………………………………………………………………….…73

Design……………………………………………………………………..……..73

Chapter Four: Data Analysis and Results

Introduction…………………………………………..…………………………..75

Results…………………………………………..………………………………..75

Chapter Five: Summary, Discussion, and Conclusion

Introduction……………………………..………………………………………..84

Summary…………………………………………………………………………84

Discussion……………………………………………………………………..…86

Conclusion………………………………………………………………………..89

Pedagogical Implications………………………..……………………………….90

Limitations of the Study……………………………..……………………………92

Suggestions for Further Research……………………..…………………………93

References…………………………………………………………………………95

Appendices……………………………………………………………………….118

Appendix A: Test of Grammar…………………………………………………119

Appendix B: Reliability Calculation……………………………………………122

Appendix C: Consent form……………………………………………..………125

List of Tables

Title                                                                                                                      Page

 

این مطلب را هم بخوانید :

Table 2.1 Twelve Descriptive Studies of Classroom CF in Ascending Order of CF Moves per Hour…………………………………………………………………….57

Table 4.1 Descriptive Statistics for the Participants’ Homogeneity in the Pre-test..75

Table 4.2 Independent Samples t-test for the Homogeneity of the Recast and Overt Correction Groups………………………………………………………………….76

Table 4.3 Descriptive Statistics for the Overt Correction Group….……………….76

Table 4.4 Paired Samples t-test for the Overt Correction Group……..……………77

Table 4.5 Descriptive Statistics for the Recast Group…………….………………..78

Table 4.6 Paired Samples t-test for the Recast Group……………..………………78

Table 4.7 Group Statistics for the Recast and Overt Correction Groups……..……79

Table 4.8 Independent Samples t-test for the Overt Correction and Recast Groups79

 

Table 4.9 Percentages of the Responses……………………………………………81

 

Table 4.10 Chi-square Test Results……………..…………………………………81

 

 

 

List of Figures

 

Figure 2.1………………………………………………………………………..…52

 

 

 

 

 

 

Abstract

The need to make corrections is inherent in the teaching profession, but teachers are often unsure as to how much to correct, or even how to go about it. Although a large body of research examined the effectiveness of certain types of error treatment methods, there has been little research done to investigate the efficacy of different types of corrective feedback on EFL learners’ grammar accuracy through eliciting repeated performances. The main objective of the study was to see if two types of corrective feedback, overt correction and recast, could help Iranian EFL learners’ grammar achievement at the intermediate level. The study was also an attempt to see which of these two types of corrective feedback could lead to a better grammar achievement. In addition, two methods of recast, declarative and interrogative, were under investigation to figure out which method of recast Iranian EFL learners at the intermediate level preferred to be used by instructors. Fifty male EFL students studying at the intermediate level at the Iran Language Institute, Yazd branch, Iran, took part in this study. They were divided into two groups who received corrective feedback through overt correction and recast. A pre-test was administered at the beginning before the consecutive process of corrective feedback provision started, and a post-test was given at the end when the process finished. The procedure of test administration and the content was the same for both overt correction and recast groups. The only difference was in the treatment, in which the errors of the overt correction group were corrected overtly, but the errors of the recast group were corrected implicitly. The results of the study indicated that both overt correction and recast as two types of corrective feedback could help Iranian language learners at the intermediate level develop their grammar knowledge over the instruction. Between-groups comparison revealed that there was no significant difference between the overt correction and recast groups with regard to their grammar performance. Additionally, a survey was conducted to explore the participants’ preferable type of recast, declarative or interrogative. A careful consideration of the percentages of declarative and interrogative recast choices showed a significant preference for interrogative recasts by the group receiving recasts in their class. The findings of this study suggested that both overt correction and recast are equally beneficial and might facilitate the process of grammar acquisition by Iranian EFL learners at the intermediate level.

 

Keywords: Corrective Feedback, Declarative Recasts, Grammar Knowledge, Interrogative Recasts, Overt Correction, Recasts.

 

 

 

Chapter One

Introduction

 

 

 

 

Preliminaries

Error correction of both oral and written mistakes occupies a prominent place in English Language Teaching (ELT) literature and continues to be a divisive issue. In the past, the consensus was that errors of any kind were bad. While reading aloud in class, students would have every pronunciation mistake corrected on the spot. In written work, all mistakes would be shown, very seriously put in red ink. Offering an answer in class often risked losing face and sometimes being reprimanded for being lazy if the answer was incorrect. More recently, however, in English language classrooms, there has been a shift in attitude to errors. Errors are regarded as indicators that learners are experimenting with a language, or testing out a new language hypothesis, or progressing in general.

creates a friendly and low-anxiety learning environment that allows “all” rather than “some” students to participate (Kern, 1995; Lee, 2002, Magnan, Farrell, Jan, Lee, Tsai, & Worth, 2003) and make students improve their communicative skills faster than ever before. Although web-based language learners might choose to limit their online connection times, or they may not have access at all due to the connection problems, computers have a variety of offline software such as e-books and audio books which mostly lack the interactional factors but conquer this problem. They can be used by learners on their computers without any necessity for connection to the internet. In so many developing countries where the internet connections have a very low speed, these offline materials look so invaluable since they can prevent students from wasting their time. The impact of Computer Mediated Communication (CMC) on FL learning has been approved by so many researches (Kelm, 1992; Ker1995; Ortega, 1997). Given the characteristics of computer assisted language learning (CALL) as a medium of education, there seems to be a need to consider learners’ characteristics as an indivisible part of learning. In Ozlem Bayat (2011, p.107) words “EFL learners are responsible for finding settings outside school where the target language is used, for example: the internet, participation in certain activities and using self-access canters”. Autonomous learners are those who seek the opportunities to learn outside classroom setting and create their own instructional settings freed from the teacher (Breen & Mann, 1997). It is critical for learners to take advantage of as many opportunities as they can to learn and use the target language. Computers as a prominent part of these opportunities can help learners to foster their autonomy but the way in which they can be used is controvertible. In area of language learning, speaking skills have a privileged status in the language-learning world (Egan, 1999). Both educators and language learners consider speaking a fundamental communicative skill in which development is often expected. However, evidence reveals that foreign language educators regularly experience difficulties in fostering speaking activities due to multiple reasons – some of which are beyond their control. Understanding these difficulties and finding solution for improving students’ speaking thorough using different type of CMC is one of the aims of this study. Another influential factor in language learning situation is learner autonomy. Autonomy is generally defined as the capacity to take charge of, or responsibility for one’s own learning (Holec, 1981, p. 3). It is both a social and an individual construct, which involves the personal development of each student and, at the same time, interaction with others (La Ganza, 2001). Research findings ha creates a friendly and low-anxiety learning environment that allows “all” rather than “some” students to participate (Kern, 1995; Lee, 2002, Magnan, Farrell, Jan, Lee, Tsai, & Worth, 2003) and make students improve their communicative skills faster than ever before. Although web-based language learners might choose to limit their online connection times, or they may not have access at all due to the connection problems, computers have a variety of offline software such as e-books and audio books which mostly lack the interactional factors but conquer this problem. They can be used by learners on their computers without any necessity for connection to the internet. In so many developing countries where the internet connections have a very low speed, these offline materials look so invaluable since they can prevent students from wasting their time. The impact of Computer Mediated Communication (CMC) on FL learning has been approved by so many researches (Kelm, 1992; Ker1995; Ortega, 1997). Given the characteristics of computer assisted language learning (CALL) as a medium of education, there seems to be a need to consider learners’ characteristics as an indivisible part of learning. In Ozlem Bayat (2011, p.107) words “EFL learners are responsible for finding settings outside school where the target language is used, for example: the internet, participation in certain activities and using self-access canters”. Autonomous learners are those who seek the opportunities to learn outside classroom setting and create their own instructional settings freed from the teacher (Breen & Mann, 1997). It is critical for learners to take advantage of as many opportunities as they can to learn and use the target language. Computers as a prominent part of these opportunities can help learners to foster their autonomy but the way in which they can be used is controvertible. In area of language learning, speaking skills have a privileged status in the language-learning world (Egan, 1999). Both educators and language learners consider speaking a fundamental communicative skill in which development is often expected. However, evidence reveals that foreign language educators regularly experience difficulties in fostering speaking activities due to multiple reasons – some of which are beyond their control. Understanding these difficulties and finding این مطلب را هم بخوانید : این مطلب را هم بخوانید : solution for improving students’ speaking thorough using different type of CMC is one of the aims of this study. Another influential factor in language learning situation is learner autonomy. Autonomy is generally defined as the capacity to take charge of, or responsibility for one’s own learning (Holec, 1981, p. 3). It is both a social and an individual construct, which involves the personal development of each student and, at the same time, interaction with others (La Ganza, 2001). Research findings have provided evidence that autonomy is of general concern in second or foreign language learning (Dafei, 2007; Wenden, 1998; Zhang & Li, 2004). As a result, the trends in language teaching has recently moved toward making learners more autonomous and shifting the responsibility toward the learner (Wenden, 1998). Considering the above facts, it seems that in spite of the numerous studies which have tried to understand different aspects of CALL, still there ve provided evidence that autonomy is of general concern in second or foreign language learning (Dafei, 2007; Wenden, 1998; Zhang & Li, 2004). As a result, the trends in language teaching has recently moved toward making learners more autonomous and shifting the responsibility toward the learner (Wenden, 1998). Considering the above facts, it seems that in spite of the numerous studies which have tried to understand different aspects of CALL, still there

human (body) and the other(‘s body) in Gibson’s Trilogy. Therefore, the researcher elucidates the argument in three main chapters besides the chapters of introduction and conclusion. The second chapter provides a theoretical framework for this study through delineating Baudrillard’s key concepts, such as “hyperreality,” “simulacrum,” “simulation,” “disappearance,” etc. Baudrillard believes that power no longer exists except as “the simulation of power.” He demonstrates “the simulation of power” through expanding on “the hallucination of power,” “the circularization of power/the end of panopticon,” and “the simulation of terror.” With having recourse to these theories, the third chapter seeks to reveal the instances of “the simulation of power” in Gibson’s technological world. The fourth chapter, with an emphasis on the central notion of “disappearance,” attempts to indicate the metamorphosis of the human (body) to the post-human (body) and the recognition of the other(‘s body) which are caused by cyber- technologies, “cyborg” and “cyberspace.” Thus, the main focus of this chapter is to scrutinize the different types of hybrid characters that are continuously merging with ‘cyber- technologies’ and the different kinds of ‘cybertechnologies’ in order to delineate “the disappearance of the human (body) and the other(‘s body)” in light of Baudrillard’s theories in Gibson’s novels. Chapter five presents the findings. As this study concludes, Gibson’ novels depict the technological world in which everything might be simulated/disappeared, or rather redefined through merging with ‘cybertechnologies.’ Keywords: Hyperreality, Simulacrum, Simulation of power, Disappearance of the human (body), Disappearance of the other(‘s body), Jean Baudrillard, William Gibson List of Abbreviations C Z Gibson, William. Count Zero. N.p.: Arbor House Pub Co, 1986. F F Baudrillard, Jean. Forget Foucault. Trans. Nicole Dufresne. Los Angeles: Semiotext(e), 2007. M L O Gibson, William. Mona Lisa Overdrive. N.p:N.p, [1988]. N Gibson, William. Neuromancer. N.p:N.p, [1984]. S & S Baudrillard, Jean. Simulacra and Simulation. Trans. Sheila Faria Glaser. Michigan: University of Michigan Press, [1994?]. T T O E Baudrillard, Jean. The Transparency of Evil: Essays on Extreme Phenomena. Trans. James Benedict. London and New York: Verso, 1993. Table of Contents Dedication……………………………………………………………………….. I Acknowledgements……………………………………………………………. II Abstract .. III List of Abbreviations……………………………………………………………V Chapter One: Introduction.. 1 1.1 General Background……………………………………………………………………………………….. 1 1.2 Statement of the Problem………………………………………………………………………………… 9 1.3 Objectives and Significance of the Study………………………………………………………. 10 1.3.1 Hypothesis. 10 1.3.2 Significance of the Study. 11 1.3.3 Purpose of the Study. 13 1.3.4 Research Questions. 14 1.4 Review of Literature………………………………………………………………………………………. 15 5 Materials and Methodology…………………………………………………………………………… 19 1.5.1 Definition of Key Terms. 19 1.5.2 Motivation and Delimitation. 20 6 Organization of the Study……………………………………………………………………………….. 21 Chapter Two: Simulation and Disappearance. 23 Introduction. 23 2.1 Baudrillard’s Trajectory of Thought……………………….………………….24 2.2 Simulation……………………………….…………………………………… 26 2.2.1 Simulation of Power 31 2.3 Disappearance………………………………………………………………… 36 2.3.1 Disappearance of the Human (Body) 37 2.3.2 Disappearance of the other 42 Conclusion. 46 Chapter Three: Simulation of Power in Gibson’s Trilogy.. 47 Introduction. 47 3.1 The Hallucinatory Signs of Power………………………………………………49 3.2 From Panopticism to the End of Panopticism……………………………….. 51 3.2.1 The Portrayal and Violation of Panopticism in Neuromancer and Count Zero. 52 3.2.2 The End of Panopticism in Mona Lisa Overdrive. 60 3.3 Simulation of Terror….…………………………………………………………63. Conclusion………….………………………………………………………………65 Chapter Four: Disappearance of the Human (Body) and the other(’s Body) in Gibson’s Trilogy.. 67 Introduction. 67 4.1 The Metamorphosis of the Human (Body) to the Post-human (Body). 69 4.1.1 Cyborg (Technologies) 70 4.1.2 Cyberspace (Technologies) 76 4.2 The Recognition of the Other(‘s Body). 86 4.2.1 The Transparency of the Other(’s Body) 86 4.2.2 Simulation of the Other(’s Body) 90 Conclusion. 92 Chapter Five: Conclusion.. 96 5.1 Summing up. 96 5.2 Findings. 100 5.3 Suggestions for Further Research. 105 Works Cited.. 107 Chapter One: Introduction General Background William Ford Gibson, an American author, was born in 1948 in South Carolina. He was interested in science fictions and used to read the biographies of most American science fiction writers, and also the writings of Allen Ginsberg, Jack Kerouac, and William S. Burroughs, thus, he was influenced by William S. Burroughs. Gibson “was among the first to explore the implication of virtual communities, reality television, nanotechnology, the digital divide, locative art, and ubiquitous computing” (Henthorne 4). His fictions represent a technological society in which the traits of street culture, such as crime, drug addiction, horror, and chaos are highlighted (Cavallaro 5). Indeed, Gibson was among the first authors who wrote cyberpunk fictions. Cyberpunk fictions “can be seen as an expansion of the tradition of science fiction” (Verhulsdonck 14), a genre which narrates new technological modes of being in “an era of blurred ontologies” (Russell 79). Gibson started his literary career by his short stories which were collected in Burning Chrome (1986). His short stories were followed by his Sprawl Trilogy; Neuromancer (1984), Count Zero (1986), and Mona Lisa Overdrive (1988). The following novels are the Bridge Trilogy; Virtual Light (1993), Idoru (1996), All Tomorrow’s Parties (1999), and the Bigend Trilogy; Pattern Recognition (2003), Spook Country (2007), Zero History (2010). This study is focused on the Sprawl Trilogy; Neuromancer (1984), Count Zero (1986), and Mona Lisa Overdrive (1988). Neuromancer (1984) is a story of a console cowboy/ hacker, Henry Case, whose nervous system was damaged by his employers through Russian “mycotoxin,” so he cannot jack in cyberspace anymore. Case lives in a coffin in Cheap Hotel near Ninsei Street. He usually spends nights in Ninsei Street bars. Wage, Linda Lee (Case’s ex-girlfriend), and Julius Deane are the important characters in this period of Case’s life. After a year, one night when Case goes back to his coffin, a lady, Molly Millions, is waiting there. She was hired to help Case in a dangerous run which Armitage wants Case to do it. Indeed, Armitage wants to control Case through the glasses which were implanted into Molly’s eyes. After Case accepts to do the run, Armitage human (body) and the other(‘s body) in Gibson’s Trilogy. Therefore, the researcher elucidates the argument in three main chapters besides the chapters of introduction and conclusion. The second chapter provides a theoretical framework for this study through delineating Baudrillard’s key concepts, such as “hyperreality,” “simulacrum,” “simulation,” “disappearance,” etc. Baudrillard believes that power no longer exists except as “the simulation of power.” He demonstrates “the simulation of power” through expanding on “the hallucination of power,” “the circularization of power/the end of panopticon,” and “the simulation of terror.” With having recourse to these theories, the third chapter seeks to reveal the instances of “the simulation of power” in Gibson’s technological world. The fourth chapter, with an emphasis on the central notion of “disappearance,” attempts to indicate the metamorphosis of the human (body) to the post-human (body) and the recognition of the other(‘s body) which are caused by cyber- technologies, “cyborg” and “cyberspace.” Thus, the main focus of this chapter is to scrutinize the different types of hybrid characters that are continuously merging with ‘cyber- technologies’ and the different kinds of ‘cybertechnologies’ in order to delineate “the disappearance of the human (body) and the other(‘s body)” in light of Baudrillard’s theories in Gibson’s novels. Chapter five presents the findings. As this study concludes, Gibson’ novels depict the technological world in which everything might be simulated/disappeared, or rather redefined through merging with ‘cybertechnologies.’ Keywords: Hyperreality, Simulacrum, Simulation of power, Disappearance of the human (body), Disappearance of the other(‘s body), Jean Baudrillard, William Gibson List of Abbreviations C Z Gibson, William. Count Zero. N.p.: Arbor House Pub Co, 1986. F F Baudrillard, Jean. Forget Foucault. Trans. Nicole Dufresne. Los Angeles: Semiotext(e), 2007. M L O Gibson, William. Mona Lisa Overdrive. N.p:N.p, [1988]. N Gibson, William. Neuromancer. N.p:N.p, [1984]. S & S Baudrillard, Jean. Simulacra and Simulation. Trans. Sheila Faria Glaser. Michigan: University of Michigan Press, [1994?]. T T O E Baudrillard, Jean. The Transparency of Evil: Essays on Extreme Phenomena. Trans. James Benedict. London and New York: Verso, 1993. Table of Contents Dedication……………………………………………………………………….. I Acknowledgements……………………………………………………………. II Abstract .. III List of Abbreviations……………………………………………………………V Chapter One: Introduction.. 1 1.1 General Background……………………………………………………………………………………….. 1 1.2 Statement of the Problem………………………………………………………………………………… 9 1.3 Objectives and Significance of the Study………………………………………………………. 10 1.3.1 Hypothesis. 10 1.3.2 Significance of the Study. 11 1.3.3 Purpose of the Study. 13 1.3.4 Research Questions. 14 1.4 Review of Literature………………………………………………………………………………………. 15 5 Materials and Methodology…………………………………………………………………………… 19 1.5.1 Definition of Key Terms. 19 1.5.2 Motivation and Delimitation. 20 6 Organization of the Study……………………………………………………………………………….. 21 Chapter Two: Simulation and Disappearance. 23 Introduction. 23 2.1 Baudrillard’s Trajectory of Thought……………………….………………….24 2.2 Simulation……………………………….…………………………………… 26 2.2.1 Simulation of Power 31 2.3 Disappearance………………………………………………………………… 36 2.3.1 Disappearance of the Human (Body) 37 2.3.2 Disappearance of the other 42 Conclusion. 46 Chapter Three: Simulation of Power in Gibson’s Trilogy.. 47 Introduction. 47 3.1 The Hallucinatory Signs of Power………………………………………………49 3.2 From Panopticism to the End of Panopticism……………………………….. 51 3.2.1 The Portrayal and Violation of Panopticism in Neuromancer and Count Zero. 52 3.2.2 The End of Panopticism in Mona Lisa Overdrive. 60 3.3 Simulation of Terror….…………………………………………………………63. Conclusion………….………………………………………………………………65 Chapter Four: Disappearance of the Human (Body) and the other(’s Body) in Gibson’s Trilogy.. 67 Introduction. 67 4.1 The Metamorphosis of the Human (Body) to the Post-human (Body). 69 4.1.1 Cyborg (Technologies) 70 4.1.2 Cyberspace (Technologies) 76 4.2 The Recognition of the Other(‘s Body). 86 4.2.1 The Transparency of the Other(’s Body) 86 4.2.2 Simulation of the Other(’s Body) 90 Conclusion. 92 Chapter Five: Conclusion.. 96 5.1 Summing up. 96 5.2 Findings. 100 5.3 Suggestions for Further Research. 105 Works Cited.. 107 Chapter One: Introduction این مطلب را هم بخوانید : این مطلب را هم بخوانید : General Background William Ford Gibson, an American author, was born in 1948 in South Carolina. He was interested in science fictions and used to read the biographies of most American science fiction writers, and also the writings of Allen Ginsberg, Jack Kerouac, and William S. Burroughs, thus, he was influenced by William S. Burroughs. Gibson “was among the first to explore the implication of virtual communities, reality television, nanotechnology, the digital divide, locative art, and ubiquitous computing” (Henthorne 4). His fictions represent a technological society in which the traits of street culture, such as crime, drug addiction, horror, and chaos are highlighted (Cavallaro 5). Indeed, Gibson was among the first authors who wrote cyberpunk fictions. Cyberpunk fictions “can be seen as an expansion of the tradition of science fiction” (Verhulsdonck 14), a genre which narrates new technological modes of being in “an era of blurred ontologies” (Russell 79). Gibson started his literary career by his short stories which were collected in Burning Chrome (1986). His short stories were followed by his Sprawl Trilogy; Neuromancer (1984), Count Zero (1986), and Mona Lisa Overdrive (1988). The following novels are the Bridge Trilogy; Virtual Light (1993), Idoru (1996), All Tomorrow’s Parties (1999), and the Bigend Trilogy; Pattern Recognition (2003), Spook Country (2007), Zero History (2010). This study is focused on the Sprawl Trilogy; Neuromancer (1984), Count Zero (1986), and Mona Lisa Overdrive (1988). Neuromancer (1984) is a story of a console cowboy/ hacker, Henry Case, whose nervous system was damaged by his employers through Russian “mycotoxin,” so he cannot jack in cyberspace anymore. Case lives in a coffin in Cheap Hotel near Ninsei Street. He usually spends nights in Ninsei Street bars. Wage, Linda Lee (Case’s ex-girlfriend), and Julius Deane are the important characters in this period of Case’s life. After a year, one night when Case goes back to his coffin, a lady, Molly Millions, is waiting there. She was hired to help Case in a dangerous run which Armitage wants Case to do it. Indeed, Armitage wants to control Case through the glasses which were implanted into Molly’s eyes. After Case accepts to do the run, Armitage sends Case to a clinic to undergo a nervous system surgery in order to be able to jack in cyberspace again. Indeed, he feels alive when he is connected to cyberspace (Lloyd 8). And also, some “toxin sacs” are bonded to his arteries to control him. After the surgery, Case and Molly live and work with each other. Whenever Molly goes to a place for work, Case controls the situation by sends Case to a clinic to undergo a nervous system surgery in order to be able to jack in cyberspace again. Indeed, he feels alive when he is connected to cyberspace (Lloyd 8). And also, some “toxin sacs” are bonded to his arteries to control him. After the surgery, Case and Molly live and work with each other. Whenever Molly goes to a place for work, Case controls the situation by

 

Title                                                                                                        Page

 

Abstract………………………………………………………………………………………1

Chapter 1: Introduction

1.0 Introduction……………………………………………………………………………2

1.1 Theoretical Framework……………………………………………………………………3

1.2 Significance of the Study……………………………………………………………………………………7

1.3 Statement of the problem………………………………………………………………8

1.4 Research Questions of the Study………………………………………………………..10

1.5 Hypotheses of the study………………………………………………………………10

1.6 Definitions of Key Terms ………………………………………………………………11

1.6.1 Learning Strategies………………………………………………………….11

1.6.2 Listening strategies………………………………………………………….11

1.6.3 Metacognitive Strategies……………………………………………………11

1.6.4 Cognitive strategies…………………………………………………………11

1.6.5 Socio-affective Strategies……………………………………………………12

1.6.6 Listening Comprehension…………….……………………………………..12

1.7Summary…………………………………………………………………….………..12

 

Chapter Two: Review of the Literature

2.0 Introduction…………………………………………………………………….…….14

2.1 Language learning and strategies………………………………………………..……14

2.2 Classification of language learning strategies ………………………………….……23

2.3 Language learning and listening…………………………………………………..….28

2.3.1. What Is Listening?……………………………………………………………………………..28

2.4 Role of Listening in Second or Foreign Language Acquisition ………………….….31

2.5 Listening Comprehension Strategies ………………………………………………..…….33

 

Title                                                                                                        Page

 

Abstract………………………………………………………………………………………1

Chapter 1: Introduction

1.0 Introduction……………………………………………………………………………2

1.1 Theoretical Framework……………………………………………………………………3

1.2 Significance of the Study……………………………………………………………………………………7

1.3 Statement of the problem………………………………………………………………8

1.4 Research Questions of the Study………………………………………………………..10

1.5 Hypotheses of the study………………………………………………………………10

1.6 Definitions of Key Terms ………………………………………………………………11

1.6.1 Learning Strategies………………………………………………………….11

1.6.2 Listening strategies………………………………………………………….11

1.6.3 Metacognitive Strategies……………………………………………………11

1.6.4 Cognitive strategies…………………………………………………………11

1.6.5 Socio-affective Strategies……………………………………………………12

1.6.6 Listening Comprehension…………….……………………………………..12

1.7Summary…………………………………………………………………….………..12

 

Chapter Two: Review of the Literature

2.0 Introduction…………………………………………………………………….…….14

2.1 Language learning and strategies………………………………………………..……14

2.2 Classification of language learning strategies ………………………………….……23

2.3 Language learning and listening…………………………………………………..….28

2.3.1. What Is Listening?……………………………………………………………………………..28

2.4 Role of Listening in Second or Foreign Language Acquisition ………………….….31

2.5 Listening Comprehension Strategies ………………………………………………..…….33

2.5.1 Metacognitive Listening Strategies…………………..…………………………….39

2.5.1.1 Pre-listening Planning Strategies………………………………………….44

2.5.1.2 While-listening Monitoring Strategies……………………………………45

2.5.1.3 Post Listening Evaluating Strategies………………………………………46

2.5.2 Cognitive Strategies………………………………………………..……………….46

2.5.2.1 Bottom-up and Top-down Listening Strategies…………………………..49

2.5.3 Socio-affective Strategies………………………………………………..…………52

2.6 Empirical studies in the field of Language Learning Strategies………………………54

2.7 Summary……………………………………………………………………..……….58

 

Chapter Three: Methodology

3.0 Introduction…………………………………………………………………….…….59

3.1 Pilot study……………………………………………………………………………..59

3.2 Design of the study ………………………..…………………………………………60

3.3 Participants………………………………………………………………………..….61

3.4 Materials  ……………………………………………………………………………61

3.4.1 Oxford Placement Test………………………………….……………….….62

3.4.2 Cheng’s Scale for Listening Strategies………………………………………62

3.5 Procedure……………………………………………………………………..………63

3.6 Methods of Analyzing Data ………………………………………………………….65

3.6.1 Ethical consideration…………………………………………………….….65

3.7 Summary…………………………………………………………………………..….66

 

 

Chapter Four: Results

4.0 Introduction…………………………………………………………………………..68

4.1 Measure of L2 Proficiency……………………………………………………………69

4.2 Questionnaire Data ……………………………………………………………………70

4.3 The First Research Question………………………………………………………….71

4.4 The Second Research Question………………………………………………………77

4.5 Computing the Effect size……………………………………………………………78

4.6 Findings of Interview………………………………………………………………….83

4.7 Summary………………………………………………………………………………86

 

Chapter Five: Discussion

5.0 Introduction…………………………………………………………………….…….87

5.1 General Discussion………………………………………………………….………..88

5.1.1 Further Considerations……………………….……………………………..89

5.2 Implications……………………………………………………………….………….90

5.2.1 Implications for teachers……………………..……………………………..91

5.2.2 Implications for Students…………………..…………………….…………94

5.2.3 Implications for Educational Policy Makers and Curriculum Developer..…94

5.3 Limitations of the study………………………………………………………………95

5.4 Suggestions for Further Research…………………………………………………….96

5.5 Summary……………………………………………………………………….……..97

 

References ………………………………………………………………………………..98

 

Appendices………………………………………………………………………..……111

 

List of Tables

Table                                                                                                              Page

4.1       Statistics for the OPT Scores………………………………………………………69

4.2       Reliability statistics of the questionnaire (pilot study)…………………………….70

4.3       Item statistics for the listening comprehension strategy use questionnaire (metacognitive strategies)…………………………………………………………………71

4.4       Descriptive statistics for the listening comprehension strategy use questionnaire (metacognitive strategies)………………………………………………………….……..72

4.5       Item statistics for the listening comprehension strategy use questionnaire (cognitive strategies)………………………………………………………………………73

4.6       Descriptive statistics for the listening comprehension strategy use questionnaire (cognitive strategies)………………………………………………………………………74

4.7       Descriptive statistics for the listening comprehension strategy use questionnaire (socio affective strategies)………………………………………………………………..75

4.8       Descriptive statistics for the listening comprehension strategy use questionnaire (socio- affective strategies)………………………………………………………………..75

4.9       Statistics for different categories of the questionnaire……………………………76

4.10    Ranks of female and male participants on listening comprehension strategy use………………………………………………………………………………….……..78

4.11    Median value of each group (listening comprehension strategy -use questionnaire)……………………………………………………………………………..78

4.12    Mann-Whitney U Test for the listening comprehension strategy-use of males and females……………………………………………………………………………………78

4.13    Ranks for females and males in metacognitive strategies…………………..…….80

4.14    Ranks for females and males in cognitive strategies………………………………81

4.15    Ranks for females and males in socio- affective strategies…………………….…82

 

 

 

List of Figures

 

Table                                                                                                              Page

2.1       Diagram of Oxford’s Strategy Classification System…………………………….27

4.1       The comparison between males and females in their use of listening comprehension strategies…………………………………………………………………79

4.2       The comparison between males and females in their use of metacognitive strategies………………………………………………………………………………….81

4.3       The comparison between males and females in their use of cognitive strategies…………………………………………………………………………………..82

4.4       The comparison between males and females in their use of socio- affective strategies………………………………………………………………………………….83

 

 

 

 

Abstract

The main goal of this investigation was to identify the listening strategies of Iranian male and female foreign (English) language learners and to compare the listening strategies of both groups of research participants. To investigate, 76 undergraduate students of different major of English were selected via administrating the Oxford Placement Test (OPT).Then, they were divided into two groups of 38asked to complete Cheng’ s (2002) 30-item Listening Strategyin the Likert-scale format to identify the listening strategies they  use. Then the data gathered were run through statistical tests, including descriptive test and Mann Whitney U-test. Based on the findings of the studythe listeners usedmore metacognitive strategies than cognitive and socio-affective strategies respectively.In addition, as gender influenced selecting the types of strategies for listening, it can be efficient for policy makers, syllabus designers, practitioners and instructors especially in Iran where classrooms are separated according to students’gender.

Key words:Listening Strategies, Metacognitive Strategies, Cognitive Strategies, Socio-affective Strategies

 

 

2.5.1 Metacognitive Listening Strategies…………………..…………………………….39

2.5.1.1 Pre-listening Planning Strategies………………………………………….44

2.5.1.2 While-listening Monitoring Strategies……………………………………45

2.5.1.3 Post Listening Evaluating Strategies………………………………………46

2.5.2 Cognitive Strategies………………………………………………..……………….46

2.5.2.1 Bottom-up and Top-down Listening Strategies…………………………..49

2.5.3 Socio-affective Strategies………………………………………………..…………52

2.6 Empirical studies in the field of Language Learning Strategies………………………54

2.7 Summary……………………………………………………………………..……….58

 

Chapter Three: Methodology

3.0 Introduction…………………………………………………………………….…….59

3.1 Pilot study……………………………………………………………………………..59

3.2 Design of the study ………………………..…………………………………………60

3.3 Participants………………………………………………………………………..….61

3.4 Materials  ……………………………………………………………………………61

3.4.1 Oxford Placement Test………………………………….……………….….62

3.4.2 Cheng’s Scale for Listening Strategies………………………………………62

3.5 Procedure……………………………………………………………………..………63

3.6 Methods of Analyzing Data ………………………………………………………….65

3.6.1 Ethical consideration…………………………………………………….….65

3.7 Summary…………………………………………………………………………..….66

 

 

Chapter Four: Results

4.0 Introduction…………………………………………………………………………..68

4.1 Measure of L2 Proficiency……………………………………………………………69

این مطلب را هم بخوانید :

4.2 Questionnaire Data ……………………………………………………………………70

4.3 The First Research Question………………………………………………………….71

4.4 The Second Research Question………………………………………………………77

4.5 Computing the Effect size……………………………………………………………78

4.6 Findings of Interview………………………………………………………………….83

4.7 Summary………………………………………………………………………………86

 

Chapter Five: Discussion

5.0 Introduction…………………………………………………………………….…….87

5.1 General Discussion………………………………………………………….………..88

5.1.1 Further Considerations……………………….……………………………..89

5.2 Implications……………………………………………………………….………….90

5.2.1 Implications for teachers……………………..……………………………..91

5.2.2 Implications for Students…………………..…………………….…………94

5.2.3 Implications for Educational Policy Makers and Curriculum Developer..…94

5.3 Limitations of the study………………………………………………………………95

5.4 Suggestions for Further Research…………………………………………………….96

5.5 Summary……………………………………………………………………….……..97

 

References ………………………………………………………………………………..98

 

Appendices………………………………………………………………………..……111

 

List of Tables

Table                                                                                                              Page

4.1       Statistics for the OPT Scores………………………………………………………69

4.2       Reliability statistics of the questionnaire (pilot study)…………………………….70

4.3       Item statistics for the listening comprehension strategy use questionnaire (metacognitive strategies)…………………………………………………………………71

4.4       Descriptive statistics for the listening comprehension strategy use questionnaire (metacognitive strategies)………………………………………………………….……..72

4.5       Item statistics for the listening comprehension strategy use questionnaire (cognitive strategies)………………………………………………………………………73

4.6       Descriptive statistics for the listening comprehension strategy use questionnaire (cognitive strategies)………………………………………………………………………74

4.7       Descriptive statistics for the listening comprehension strategy use questionnaire (socio affective strategies)………………………………………………………………..75

4.8       Descriptive statistics for the listening comprehension strategy use questionnaire (socio- affective strategies)………………………………………………………………..75

4.9       Statistics for different categories of the questionnaire……………………………76

4.10    Ranks of female and male participants on listening comprehension strategy use………………………………………………………………………………….……..78

4.11    Median value of each group (listening comprehension strategy -use questionnaire)……………………………………………………………………………..78

4.12    Mann-Whitney U Test for the listening comprehension strategy-use of males and females……………………………………………………………………………………78

4.13    Ranks for females and males in metacognitive strategies…………………..…….80

4.14    Ranks for females and males in cognitive strategies………………………………81

4.15    Ranks for females and males in socio- affective strategies…………………….…82

 

 

 

List of Figures

 

Table                                                                                                              Page

2.1       Diagram of Oxford’s Strategy Classification System…………………………….27

4.1       The comparison between males and females in their use of listening comprehension strategies…………………………………………………………………79

4.2       The comparison between males and females in their use of metacognitive strategies………………………………………………………………………………….81

4.3       The comparison between males and females in their use of cognitive strategies…………………………………………………………………………………..82

4.4       The comparison between males and females in their use of socio- affective strategies………………………………………………………………………………….83

 

 

 

 

Abstract

The main goal of this investigation was to identify the listening strategies of Iranian male and female foreign (English) language learners and to compare the listening strategies of both groups of research participants. To investigate, 76 undergraduate students of different major of English were selected via administrating the Oxford Placement Test (OPT).Then, they were divided into two groups of 38asked to complete Cheng’ s (2002) 30-item Listening Strategyin the Likert-scale format to identify the listening strategies they  use. Then the data gathered were run through statistical tests, including descriptive test and Mann Whitney U-test. Based on the findings of the studythe listeners usedmore metacognitive strategies than cognitive and socio-affective strategies respectively.In addition, as gender influenced selecting the types of strategies for listening, it can be efficient for policy makers, syllabus designers, practitioners and instructors especially in Iran where classrooms are separated according to students’gender.

Key words:Listening Strategies, Metacognitive Strategies, Cognitive Strategies, Socio-affective Strategies