The present study aimed at the effectiveness of task types (noticing-reformulation) on Iranian upper- Intermediate EFL Learners’ retention of collocations. The study follows a two-group pretest, treatment, post-test design which was documented 40 upper-intermediate Iranian EFL learners with the same proficiency level measured by an OPT test and two non- native English teachers. The participants were randomly assigned to an experimental and control group that were exposed to Noticing-Reformulation tasks and traditional methods respectively to determine whether there was any development in the long-term retention of collocations. Analysis of the data obtained from independent-samples t-tests along with the Pearson product-moment correlation coefficient indicated that there were significant quantitative and statistical differences in the output of participants from the two different groups, with learners who participated in the experimental group outperforming and incorporating significantly more retention of collocations in the immediate and delayed post-test than learners from the control group. Key Words: Noticing, Reformulation, Collocation, Retention, Output, OPT. Table of Content Title Page CHAPTER 1: Introduction 1.0. Introduction ……………………………………………………..………………..1 1.1. Theoretical Framework ……………………………………………….……….…3 1.2. Statement of the Problem ……………………………………………….…….….5 1.3. Significance and Purpose of the Study………………………………………..….6 1.4. Research Questions of the Study …………………………………………..……7 1.5. Hypotheses of the Study…………………………………………….……………7 1.6. Definitions of Key Terms………………………………………………….….….8 1.6.1.Collocation………………………………………………………………………8 1.6.2. Noticing………………………………………………………….…….…….…8 1.6.3. Reformulation …………………………………………………..………….…..8 1.6.4. Task ……………………………………………………………………..…..….9 1.6.5. Intake ………………………………………………………………..…….……9 1.6.6. Noticing the Gap………………………………………………………….…….9 1.6.7. Retention …………………………………………………………..…………..10 1.7. Summary………………………………………………………….………..….…1 CHAPTER 2: LITERATURE REVIW 2.0. Introduction……………………………………………………………….…..….11 2.1. Feedback Research in SLA……………………………………………………….11 2.1.1. The role of feedback in SLA……………………………………………………11 2.2. Psycholinguistic Processes in Second Language Acquisition …………………..21 2.2.1. Noticing and learning……………………………………………………..……21 2.2.2. The Noticing Hypothesis and SLA……………………………………………..27 2.2.3. Noticing, Intake and Subliminal Perception……………………………..…….35 2.2.4. Individual Differences in Noticing and Awareness ……………………….…..36 2.2.5. A Critical Review of Noticing Hypothesis in SLA………………………..…..37 2.3. The Theories of Vocabulary Acquisition……………………….………………..42 2.3.1. Collocation……………………………………………………………….…….42 2.3.2. Research on collocations………………………………………………..……..44 2.4. Noticing, Awareness and Attention in Learning Collocations………………….47 2.5. Problems in Collocation Production………………………………….……..…..49 2.6. Vocabulary Retention……………………………………………………………50 2.7. Summary……………………………………………………………………..….51 CHAPTER3: METHODOLOGY 3.0. Introduction……………………………………………………………….….….52 3.1. The Design of the Study………………………………………………………….52 3.2. Participants……………………………………………………………..……..…53 3.3. Materials ……………………………………………………………………..…..53 3.3.1. Concordance Software for Text Analysis………………………………..……54 3.3.2. Testing Instruments…………………………………………………………….54 3.3.2.1. The Self-report and Collocation Pre-test…………………………….………54 3.3.2.2. Immediate Collocation Retention Post-test……………………….…….…..54 3.3.2.3. Delayed Collocation Retention Post-test ………………………………..….55 3.3.3. Questionnaires …………………………………………………………….…..55 3.4. Procedure…………………………………………………………………….…..57 3.4.1. Week 1: Self-report Collocation Pretest/ Comparison Session………………..58 3.4.2. Week 3: Immediate Collocation Retention Post-test……………………….….59 3.4.4. Delayed Collocation Retention Post-test………………………………………59 3.5. Methods of Analyzing Data……………………………………………………..60 3.6. Scoring……………………………………….………………………………..…61 3.7. Summary…………………………………………………………………..……..61 CHAPTER4: RESULTS AND DATA ANALYSIS 4.0. Introduction………………………………………………………………………62 4.1. Data Analysis and Findings ………………………………………………….…62 4.1.1. The descriptive Analysis of the Data……………………………………..……62 4.1.2. Inferential Analysis of the Data……………………………………………..…66 4.2. Results of the Hypothesis Testing…………………………………………..……68 4.3. Summary……………………………………………………………………….…68 CHAPTER5: DISCUSSIONS AND IMPLICATIONS 5.0. Introduction………………………………………………………………..…..…69 5.1. General Discussion…………………………………………………………..……69 5.1.1. Discussion of the Findings Gained by the Questionnaire………………..……70 5.2. Implications of the Study…………………………………………………………71 5.2.1. Theoretical Implications……………………………….……………….………71 5.2.2. Pedagogical Implications………………………..…………………………..…71 5.3. Limitations of the Study………………………………………….…………….…72 5.4. Suggestions for Further Research………………………………………..………73 5.5. Summary …………………………………………………………………….……73 REFRENCES…………………………………………………….……..……………74 LIST OF APPENDICES Appendix A: Oxford Placement Test (OPT)…………………………………………90 Appendix B: Self-report Collocation Pretest …………………….……………….….96 Appendix C: Pretest Administered for Participants of Both Groups (Exactly the same test was given for immediate and delayed post-tests)………………………………..96 Appendix D: Post-test Administered for Participants of Both Groups ………..…..…97 Appendix E: Questionnaire………………………………………………..……….…98 List of Tables Title Page Table 2.1. Comparison of reformulation and direct correction …………………….. 15 Table 3.1. Data collection procedure of the study ……………………………………58 Table 4.1. Group Statistics for the Delayed Post-test…………………………………63 Table 4.2. Group Statistics for the Immediate Post-test………………………………63 Table 4.3. Correlations Between the Pretest and Delayed Post-test of Experimental Group…64 Table 4.4. Correlations Between the Pre and Delayed Post-test of Control Group….64 Table 4.5. Correlations Between Pre and Immediate Post-test of Experimental Group and Control Group…………………………………………………………………….65 Table 4.6. Correlations Between Pre and Immediate Post-test of Control Group .…65 Table 4.7.Independent-samples t-test for Immediate Post-test…………………….…66 Table 4.8. Independent-samples t-test for Delayed Post-test…………………………67 Chapter one Introduction 1.0. Introduction Achieving the goals of L2 collocation instruction is no easy matter. Even a well-planned collocation lesson based on contemporary pedagogical principles cannot guarantee that learners will acquire the natural co-occurrence of words that is taught. For anyone teaching or learning a foreign language, collocation is undoubtedly one of the most fascinating challenges that they will encounter, but nevertheless can be frustrating at times. Equally, for those who are into researching foreign language collocation knowledge, learning and retention. Within the last few years learning collocations has become of paramount significance and the focus of an overwhelming majority of research studies. The pivotal aim of the researches carried out in the field has been investigating the factors and variables, which contribute to successful collocation learning, and ways of storing the most possible collocations in long-term memory. During the last decades the area of foreign language learning has been marked by a true explosion of research into collocation The present study aimed at the effectiveness of task types (noticing-reformulation) on Iranian upper- Intermediate EFL Learners’ retention of collocations. The study follows a two-group pretest, treatment, post-test design which was documented 40 upper-intermediate Iranian EFL learners with the same proficiency level measured by an OPT test and two non- native English teachers. The participants were randomly assigned to an experimental and control group that were exposed to Noticing-Reformulation tasks and traditional methods respectively to determine whether there was any development in the long-term retention of collocations. Analysis of the data obtained from independent-samples t-tests along with the Pearson product-moment correlation coefficient indicated that there were significant quantitative and statistical differences in the output of participants from the two different groups, with learners who participated in the experimental group outperforming and incorporating significantly more retention of collocations in the immediate and delayed post-test than learners from the control group. Key Words: Noticing, Reformulation, Collocation, Retention, Output, OPT. Table of Content Title Page CHAPTER 1: Introduction 1.0. Introduction ……………………………………………………..………………..1 1.1. Theoretical Framework ……………………………………………….……….…3 1.2. Statement of the Problem ……………………………………………….…….….5 1.3. Significance and Purpose of the Study………………………………………..….6 1.4. Research Questions of the Study …………………………………………..……7 1.5. Hypotheses of the Study…………………………………………….……………7 1.6. Definitions of Key Terms………………………………………………….….….8 1.6.1.Collocation………………………………………………………………………8 1.6.2. Noticing………………………………………………………….…….…….…8 1.6.3. Reformulation …………………………………………………..………….…..8 1.6.4. Task ……………………………………………………………………..…..….9 1.6.5. Intake ………………………………………………………………..…….……9 1.6.6. Noticing the Gap………………………………………………………….…….9 1.6.7. Retention …………………………………………………………..…………..10 1.7. Summary………………………………………………………….………..….…1 CHAPTER 2: LITERATURE REVIW 2.0. Introduction……………………………………………………………….…..….11 2.1. Feedback Research in SLA……………………………………………………….11 2.1.1. The role of feedback in SLA……………………………………………………11 2.2. Psycholinguistic Processes in Second Language Acquisition …………………..21 2.2.1. Noticing and learning……………………………………………………..……21 2.2.2. The Noticing Hypothesis and SLA……………………………………………..27 2.2.3. Noticing, Intake and Subliminal Perception……………………………..…….35 2.2.4. Individual Differences in Noticing and Awareness ……………………….…..36 2.2.5. A Critical Review of Noticing Hypothesis in SLA………………………..…..37 2.3. The Theories of Vocabulary Acquisition……………………….………………..42 2.3.1. Collocation……………………………………………………………….…….42 2.3.2. Research on collocations………………………………………………..……..44 2.4. Noticing, Awareness and Attention in Learning Collocations………………….47 2.5. Problems in Collocation Production………………………………….……..…..49 2.6. Vocabulary Retention……………………………………………………………50 2.7. Summary……………………………………………………………………..….51 CHAPTER3: METHODOLOGY 3.0. Introduction……………………………………………………………….….….52 3.1. The Design of the Study………………………………………………………….52 3.2. Participants……………………………………………………………..……..…53 3.3. Materials ……………………………………………………………………..…..53 3.3.1. Concordance Software for Text Analysis………………………………..……54 3.3.2. Testing Instruments…………………………………………………………….54 3.3.2.1. The Self-report and Collocation Pre-test…………………………….………54 3.3.2.2. Immediate Collocation Retention Post-test……………………….…….…..54 3.3.2.3. Delayed Collocation Retention Post-test ………………………………..….55 3.3.3. Questionnaires …………………………………………………………….…..55 3.4. Procedure…………………………………………………………………….…..57 3.4.1. Week 1: Self-report Collocation Pretest/ Comparison Session………………..58 3.4.2. Week 3: Immediate Collocation Retention Post-test……………………….….59 3.4.4. Delayed Collocation Retention Post-test………………………………………59 3.5. Methods of Analyzing Data……………………………………………………..60 3.6. Scoring……………………………………….………………………………..…61 3.7. Summary…………………………………………………………………..……..61 CHAPTER4: RESULTS AND DATA ANALYSIS 4.0. Introduction………………………………………………………………………62 4.1. Data Analysis and Findings ………………………………………………….…62 4.1.1. The descriptive Analysis of the Data……………………………………..……62 4.1.2. Inferential Analysis of the Data……………………………………………..…66 4.2. Results of the Hypothesis Testing…………………………………………..……68 4.3. Summary……………………………………………………………………….…68 CHAPTER5: DISCUSSIONS AND IMPLICATIONS 5.0. Introduction………………………………………………………………..…..…69 5.1. General Discussion…………………………………………………………..……69 5.1.1. Discussion of the Findings Gained by the Questionnaire………………..……70 5.2. Implications of the Study…………………………………………………………71 5.2.1. Theoretical Implications……………………………….……………….………71 5.2.2. Pedagogical Implications………………………..…………………………..…71 5.3. Limitations of the Study………………………………………….…………….…72 5.4. Suggestions for Further Research………………………………………..………73 5.5. Summary …………………………………………………………………….……73 REFRENCES…………………………………………………….……..……………74 LIST OF APPENDICES Appendix A: Oxford Placement Test (OPT)…………………………………………90 Appendix B: Self-report Collocation Pretest …………………….……………….….96 Appendix C: Pretest Administered for Participants of Both Groups (Exactly the same test was given for immediate and delayed post-tests)………………………………..96 Appendix D: Post-test Administered for Participants of Both Groups ………..…..…97 Appendix E: Questionnaire………………………………………………..……….…98 List of Tables Title Page Table 2.1. Comparison of reformulation and direct correction …………………….. 15 Table 3.1. Data collection procedure of the study ……………………………………58 Table 4.1. Group Statistics for the Delayed Post-test…………………………………63 Table 4.2. Group Statistics for the Immediate Post-test………………………………63 Table 4.3. Correlations Between the Pretest and Delayed Post-test of Experimental Group…64 Table 4.4. Correlations Between the Pre and Delayed Post-test of Control Group….64 Table 4.5. Correlations Between Pre and Immediate Post-test of Experimental Group and Control این مطلب را هم بخوانید : این مطلب را هم بخوانید : Group…………………………………………………………………….65 Table 4.6. Correlations Between Pre and Immediate Post-test of Control Group .…65 Table 4.7.Independent-samples t-test for Immediate Post-test…………………….…66 Table 4.8. Independent-samples t-test for Delayed Post-test…………………………67 Chapter one Introduction 1.0. Introduction Achieving the goals of L2 collocation instruction is no easy matter. Even a well-planned collocation lesson based on contemporary pedagogical principles cannot guarantee that learners will acquire the natural co-occurrence of words that is taught. For anyone teaching or learning a foreign language, collocation is undoubtedly one of the most fascinating challenges that they will encounter, but nevertheless can be frustrating at times. Equally, for those who are into researching foreign language collocation knowledge, learning and retention. Within the last few years learning collocations has become of paramount significance and the focus of an overwhelming majority of research studies. The pivotal aim of the researches carried out in the field has been investigating the factors and variables, which contribute to successful collocation learning, and ways of storing the most possible collocations in long-term memory. During the last decades the area of foreign language learning has been marked by a true explosion of research into collocation learning strategies that emanated from the first attempt at pinpointing reasons why some learners achieve better results in collocation learning and retention than their peers. Accordingly, wide-ranging volumes of research in collocation learning have been published in the last 20 years or so, but not all of them have reported sufficient collocation knowledge among EFL learners and have rarely embraced dedicated studies investigating into the impact of using Noticing-Reformulation technique on collocation knowledge and retention. learning strategies that emanated from the first attempt at pinpointing reasons why some learners achieve better results in collocation learning and retention than their peers. Accordingly, wide-ranging volumes of research in collocation learning have been published in the last 20 years or so, but not all of them have reported sufficient collocation knowledge among EFL learners and have rarely embraced dedicated studies investigating into the impact of using Noticing-Reformulation technique on collocation knowledge and retention.